Variability in the initiation of diffuse nerve-net impulses in the mangrove jellyfish Cassiopea xamachana (Coelenterate: Scyphozoa)

1. Single electric stimuli given anywhere on the subumbrellar epiderm of the rhizostome Cassiopea xamachana cause initiation of discrete distinguishable single nerve impulses in each of two nerve-nets, the giant-fiber nerve-net (GFNN) and the diffuse nerve-net (DNN).2. DNN pulse arrival times to remote recording sites are very variable, from trial to trial, but highly correlated when measured to separate recording sites along different pathways after a single stimulus. Less than 10% of the total variability is due to short-term random variation in conduction.3. Evidence is presented in support of a model of long and variable time required for DNN pulse initiation by stimuli but relatively constant pulse conduction. The two nerve-nets are contrasted in these regards.     

Bud formation in the scyphozoan Cassiopea andromeda: epithelial dynamics and fate map

Cassiopea andromeda scyphistomae reproduce asexually by forming spindle shaped buds which, after detachment, metamorphose into polyps. Parent polyps appear to contribute to the buds' ecto- and endodermal epithelial cells, septal muscle cells, nematocytes and some zooxanthellae. Herein we describe bud morphogenesis, define 5 bud stages, and investigate the recruitment of bud ectoderm. India ink vital marking experiments reveal permanent apicobasal displacement of ectoderm. Labelled polyp cells are displaced towards and incorporated into the emerging bud. Ectoderm is recruited from all angular positions and cells labelled at increasing distances from the bud center are traced at increasingly more proximal positions on the buds. Unlike in Hydra attenuata, the recruitment area appears to be asymmetric since the zone contributing ectoderm from below is smaller than the zones above and lateral to the buds.     

Ammonia induces metamorphosis of the oral half of buds into polyp heads in the scyphozoan Cassiopea

Summary The scyphozoan polyp Cassiopea forms vegetative free swimming buds that metamorphose into sessile polyps. In sterile sea water metamorphosis does not take place. Buds keep swimming for weeks. Application of millimolar quantities of NH ₄ ⁺ causes the buds to metamorphose within one day. The resulting animals bear hypostome and tentacles, however, only occasionally peduncle and foot. Almost all transform either completely into solitary polyp head or only the oral half of the bud developes into a head while the aboral half remains bud tissue which becomes constricted off. Under suited conditions this small bud is able to transform into a normal shaped polyp.     

Scleroblast cultures from the gorgonianLeptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck) (Coelenterata: Gorgonacea)

Summary Scleroblasts were separated from fragmented tissue of growing tips ofLeptogorgia virgulata and cultured using a modification of the technique of Rannou. Replacement of fetal bovine serum with horse serum seemed to increase scleroblast viability. Cell adhesion occurred from 14 to 43 d. Cultured scleroblasts demonstrated cell aggregation, spicule formation, and extrusion of spicules into the external medium. Cells showing spicules in the process of being extruded appeared on the average after 24 d of culture. Variability among cultures was marked with respect to both division and spicule formation. Healthy cultures were maintained for more than 4 mo. This work was supported by National Science Foundation grants PCM8201389 and DCB8502698. This is contribution No. 674 of Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina.     

Ultrastructural investigation of spicule formation in the gorgonianLeptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck) (Coelenterata: Gorgonacea)

Summary Ultrastructural examination of original and regenerated branch tips of the gorgonianLeptogorgia virgulata reveals that spicule formation begins with the aggregation of scleroblasts in the mesoglea. Calcite crystal deposition occurs within a Golgi vacuole containing organic matrix. Vacuole size increases while matrix incorporation and subsequent crystal growth continue, filling the vacuole. At approximately this time, the scleroblasts dissociate and wart formation begins. Further spicule growth stretches the cell into a thin envelope. Fusion of vacuole and plasma membrane followed by breach formation during spicule growth, as well as scleroblast atrophy or migration from mature spicules, result in the transition of the spicule from the intracellular to the extracellular environment. The results also reveal aborted spicules and digestive bodies, implying possible relationships among calcification, detoxification, and waste management.Contribution No 436, Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, 29208, USA     

Stranding events provide indirect insights into the seasonality and persistence of jellyfish medusae (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa)

It is becoming increasingly evident that jellyfish (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) play an important role within marine ecosystems, yet our knowledge of their seasonality and reproductive strategies is far from complete. Here, we explore a number of life history hypotheses for three common, yet poorly understood scyphozoan jellyfish (Rhizostoma octopus; Chrysaora hysoscella; Cyanea capillata) found throughout the Irish and Celtic Seas. Specifically, we tested whether (1) the bell diameter/wet weight of stranded medusae increased over time in a manner that suggested a single synchronised reproductive cohort; or (2) whether the range of sizes/weights remained broad throughout the stranding period suggesting the protracted release of ephyrae over many months. Stranding data were collected at five sites between 2003 and 2006 (n = 431 surveys; n = 2401 jellyfish). The relationship between bell diameter and wet weight was determined for each species (using fresh specimens collected at sea) so that estimates of wet weight could also be made for stranded individuals. For each species, the broad size and weight ranges of stranded jellyfish implied that the release of ephyrae may be protracted (albeit to different extents) in each species, with individuals of all sizes present in the water column during the summer months. For R. octopus, there was a general increase in both mean bell diameter and wet weight from January through to June which was driven by an increase in the variance and overall range of both variables during the summer. Lastly, we provide further evidence that rhizostome jellyfish may over-wintering as pelagic medusa which we hypothesise may enable them to capitalise on prey available earlier in the year. Handling editor: K. Martens     

Taxonomic characters from the polyp tubes of coronate medusae (Scyphozoa,Coronatae)

The tubes of the polyp stages of all known species of the family Nausithoidae have been examined to find characters useful for specific identification. Such characters comprise both internal and external structures of the chitinous exoskeleton, measurements of the periderm, and the shape of the tubes defined by the Formquotient. A key for the polyp generation is given based on these characters. The long-term rearing of several species and elucidation of their life cycles has also enabled a key to the medusa generation of the Nausithoidae to be constructed. Stephanoscyphistoma gen. nov. is proposed for the polyps of all species of coronates of uncertain medusa genus.     

Ecology and behavior ofGnamptogenys horni (Formicidae: Ponerinae)

Summary In order to examine social behavior in the little-studied ponerine ant genusGnamptogenys, detailed observations were made on captive colonies ofG. horni. Compilation of a behavioral repertory gave evidence of age-based division of labor, with old ants more likely to forage and young ants more likely to tend brood. Workers were observed to line the walls of their nests with pieces of old cocoons, a behavior referred to as wallpapering and previously known from only one other ant species. Evidence was obtained for the use of trail recruitment pheromones in foraging and in nest-moving. Examination of prey remains in natural nests indicated thatG. horni feeds principally on a wide variety of ants, but also on other arthropods.     

An autoradiographic study of calcium transport in spicule formation in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck) (Coelenterata: Gorgonacea)

Summary The route of calcium transport to the sites of spicule formation in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata has been examined by the use of ⁴⁵Ca as a tracer in light- and electron-microscopic autoradiography. From 1 to 15 min after the 15-min incubation the tracer accumulates in the axis. After 15 min there is a movement of label out of the axis largely to the peripheral region of the axis, the axial epithelium, and the mesoglea. By 60 min much of the label is in the spicules reaching its maximum level at 120 min. When calcium enters the scleroblast from the mesoglea, it appears to be transported to the spicule by electron-dense bodies. There does not appear to be a simultaneous release of all ionic calcium from the axis, but rather a continuously increasing efflux which levels off at 60–120 min. Not all of the calcium reaching the axis will traverse it en route to spicules; instead, a portion of it apparently precipitates as an amorphous compound.Contribution No. 550; Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208 USA     

Synthesis and transport of the organic matrix of the spicules in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata (Lamarck) (Coelenterata: Gorgonacea)

Summary The sequence of the synthesis and transport of the organic matrix of spicules has been elucidated in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata by use of ³H-aspartic acid as the tracer in electron-microscopic autoradiography. The entire process of matrix synthesis and transport takes approximately 2 h. It seems that the protein moiety of the organic matrix is synthesized in the RER prior to 5 min following the initial 10 min incubation in the tracer. At the 5 min chase the label is moving from the RER to the Golgi complexes where the carbohydrate moiety of the matrix is presumed to be synthesized. At the 5 to 15 min chases the label is transported out of the Golgi complexes via Golgi vesicles. This phase continues for 30 min. From 60 to 120 min the ³H-aspartic acid moves to the spicules. After 120 min the majority of the label has moved into the spicules. Silver grain counts over both multivesicular and electron-dense bodies remain at relatively low and constant levels over 4 h indicating that neither organelle is involved in the synthesis and transport of the organic matrix.Contribution No 512; Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA     

Pheromonal emission during the mating behavior ofEurycotis floridana (Walker) (Dictyoptera: Blattidae)

The sexual behavior of males and females ofEurycotis floridana was investigated and the various associated behavioral sequences are described. Olfactometer data proved that the male produces a volatile sex pheromone attractive at a distance to conspecific females. The male initiates courtship behavior by exposing the glandular areas on the anterior parts of abdominal tergites 2, 7, and 8. This male calling behavior was observed throughout the day. The males can mate when 8 days old, whereas virgin females are sexually receptive 18 days after becoming adults. Once attracted near the male, the female opens her genital atrium and climbs on the back of the male, where she feeds on the glandular secretions that oozed around a little tuft of setae on the first tergite. These setae are mechanoreceptors and they are stimulated when licked by the females, which informs the male that she is in a proper position for copulation.     

Clinical usefulness of continuous administration ofNocardia rubra cell wall skeleton (N-CWS) in diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB)

Eight patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis (DPB) who had repeated intractable airway infections were continuously treated withNocardia rubra cell wall skeleton (N-CWS), a biological response modifier. As a result, subjective symptoms were reduced in 6 patients. Antibiotics therapy could be discontinued completely in two patients and the dose of antibiotics could be reduced considerably in two other patients. No adverse reactions in relation to N-CWS were observed. These results suggest that N-CWS is effective in treating erythromycin-resistant DPB.Abbreviations BRM Biological response modifier - DPB Diffuse panbronchiolitis - EM erythromycin - N-CWS Nocardia rubra cell wall skeleton     

Facultative schooling behavior in the spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius): possible costs and benefits

Synopsis If an individual is less susceptible to predation in a group it should be able to reduce its vigilance for predators and perhaps also its tendency to flee from predators, thereby gaining time and energy for feeding and other activities. These predictions were examined in the field (Veronica Lake, northwestern Ontario) using a facultative schooling species, the spottail shiner (Notropis hudsonius). Schools of various sizes attacked with a fish predator model had a significantly lower reaction distance to the predator than solitary shiners. Solitary shiners must therefore invest more time and energy in defense but may gain a feeding advantage because their visual field does not overlap with conspecific competitors.     

Development time and pupation behavior in theDrosophila melanogaster subgroup (Diptera: Drosophilidae)

This study is an in-depth analysis of intersexual, intraspecific, and interspecific variability in larvopupal developmental time, pupation site preference, and larval and pupal survival of a number of isofemale lines of the speciesDrosophila mauritiana, D. melanogaster, D. sechellia, D. simulans, D. teissieri, andD. yakuba. There was no significant sex differences in pupation height, but females eclosed significantly earlier than males in all species. In addition, the suggestion of a strong negative correlation between larval developmental time and pupation height could not be confirmed in this study. The hypothesis that differences in pupation height provide a basis for niche partitioning between closely related species with overlapping distributions was tested by three planned orthogonal contrast analyses of variance. First, the two speciesD. teissieri andD. yakuba, with largely overlapping distribution, were significantly different in pupation height. Second, the two allopatric, nonoverlapping island speciesD. mauritiana andD. sechellia did not significantly differ in pupation height. However, the absence of a significant difference in the final contrast between the two cosmopolitan speciesD. melanogaster andD. simulans, which are often found together, makes us cautious to accept the hypothesis.     

Courtship behavior of the mosquitoSabethes cyaneus (Diptera: Culicidae)

Unlike any other mosquito reported, Sabethes cyaneus(Fabricius) displays an elaborate courtship before and during copulation. A male approaches a female suspended from a horizontal stick, suspends himself in front of her as he grasps her folded wings, and proceeds with a series of discrete stereotyped behaviors that involve proboscis vibration and movement of iridescent blue paddles on his midlegs. The sequence of these behaviors is as follows: freeleg waving, swinging, copulation attempt, superficial coupling, waving, genital shift, waggling, and release. Insemination occurs after genital shift. The only overt reciprocation by the female is abdomen lowering during the male's swinging. Courtship is often unsuccessful, and males are usually rejected during freeleg waving. The relation between male performance and mating success remains obscure.     

Effects of experience on food-searching behavior in the antFormica schaufussi (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Foragers of the ant Formica schaufussitend to return to and search at a site of a previous food find. The search tactic employed by a forager on its return trip is related to the type of food previously encountered: search is more persistent in response to carbohydrate than to protein food. Using different reinforcement schedules with carbohydrate and protein food rewards, we show that, on a short-term as well as on a long-term basis, the basic pattern of search observed in naive foragers is only slightly modified through foraging experience. Foragers do not increase their search effort or adjust their search pattern when either type of food is systematically renewed on a fixed reward schedule and thus do not seem to be able to learn to assess the food predictability. Collective responses that could compensate for this lack of individual flexibility and increase foraging efficiency at the colony level are discussed.     

Mating behavior and the evolutionary significance of mate guarding in three species of crane flies (Diptera: Tipulidae)

Three species of crane flies-Dactylolabis montana, Limonia simulans,and Antocha saxicola-gather near streams to mate and oviposit. All species are polygamous and sex ratios at these sites are male-biased. After a short mating bout, males guard females by standing over them during oviposition. Sperm competition appears to be intense and to follow last-male advantage, based on the packing of sperm within the two elongate spermathecae. Males of A. saxicolasuccessfully defend against rivals over 85% of the time. In contrast, defending males of D. montanaand L. simulanslose the female over 65% of the time during interactions with rivals. Despite the high frequency of loss, defending males gain additional oviposition time by engaging rivals in combat while the female continues to oviposit. Thus, a guarding male does not have to retain the female for guarding to be adaptive. Legs and claws of all species are sexually dimorphic and play an important role in guarding and defending.     

Foraging behavior of the communal spider,Philoponella republicana (Araneae: Uloboridae)

The communal orb-weaving spider, Philoponella republicana,was observed in the subtropical moist forest of Southeast Peru. These spiders live in colonies of conspecifics whose individual orbs are connected by silk. The wrapping of a prey prior to feeding is a large component of the prey capture process because P. republicanahas no venom with which to kill an insect. Wrapping time was the only aspect of prey capture that was strongly correlated with the size of the insect captured. Occasionally we observed several individuals working together to wrap a prey item. These joint efforts were more frequent on prey larger than the capturing spider. Although group captures accounted for only 5.5% of captures, they represented 14.7% of the biomass obtained. A comparison of the relationship between wrapping time and prey size for solitary and group efforts suggested that, by working together, the spiders reduced their total handling time. In most cases only one spider fed on the captured prey.     

Function of abdomen wave behavior in larvalischnura verticalis (Odonata: Coenagrionidae)

Odonate larvae are important predators in the littoral zone of freshwater systems, and in an effort understand their population dynamics, researchers have described and analyzed many of their behaviors. The behavior we call abdomen wave has been considered to be both an aid to respiration and an aggressive display to conspecifics. We found that, under laboratory conditions, abdomen wave was not increased when the oxygen concentration was low or when larvae were in the presence of conspecifics. These results suggest the behavior is not involved in oxygen uptake or in agonistic interactions. The behavior was increased when larvae had food in their guts and was most dramatically increased in the hours preceding a molt. Abdomen wave may function to loosen the exoskeleton prior to molting and/or release of metabolites.