Involvement of propeptides in formation of catalytically active metalloproteinase from Thermoactinomyces sp

The metalloproteinase from Thermoactinomyces sp. 27a (Mpr) represents secretory thermolysin-like metalloproteinases of the M4 family. The Thermoactinomyces enzyme is synthesized as a precursor consisting of a signal peptide, N-terminal propeptide, mature region, and C-terminal propeptide. The functional molecule lacks the signal peptide, N-terminal propeptide, and C-terminal propeptide, which indicates the processing of these regions. Until now, it remained unclear if the N-terminal propeptide is involved in the formation and functioning of Mpr, and the role of the C-terminal propeptide was also unclear. In this work, a Bacillus subtilis AJ73 strain expressing Mpr without the C-terminal propeptide- encoding region being involved has been obtained. The absence of the Mpr C-terminal propeptide had no significant effect on the formation of the functional molecule and did not interfere with the protease secretion in B. subtilis AJ73 cells. Strains producing the N-terminal propeptide, mature region, and mature region covalently bound to the N-terminal propeptide were generated from Escherichia coli BL-21(DE3) cells. Functionally active Mpr forms could be produced only in the presence of the N-terminal propeptide, either covalently bound to the mature region (in cis) or as a separate molecule (in trans). Thus, the Mpr three-dimensional structure is formed according to the propeptide-assisted mechanism with no requirement of a covalent bond between the N-terminal propeptide and mature region. Moreover, Mpr variants generated in cis and in trans differed in their specificity for certain synthetic substrates.     

Function of the prosequence for in vivo folding and secretion of active Rhizopus oryzae lipase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The role of the prosequence of Rhizopus oryzae lipase (ROL) with a preprosequence was analyzed by an expression system using Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When the mature portion of ROL (mROL) fused to the pre-alpha-factor leader sequence was expressed, secretion of active mROL was not observed. However, when mROL was synthesized together with the prosequence in trans (individually and coincidentally), secretion of active mROL was observed. The results indicate that the prosequence of ROL helped correct folding of mROL and its subsequent secretion from the yeast cells, and that physical linkage (cis) of the prosequence to the mature region was not prerequisite. From the expression of the ROL mutants with deletions at the N-terminal end of the prosequence together with mROL in trans, the residues from 20 to 37 in the prosequence were essential for the secretion, and those from 38 to 57 were essential for the formation of the active ROL and might play a role as an intramolecular chaperone. The results using the fragment of the prosequence confirmed that these residues (20-57) were significant for in vivo folding and secretion of active mROL.     

Role of the propeptide in folding and secretion of elastase of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Elastase of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is synthesized as a pre-proprotein. The propeptide has been shown to inhibit the enzymatic activity of elastase. In this study, we investigated a possible additional role of the propeptide in the folding and secretion of the enzyme. When elastase was expressed in Escherichia coli without its propeptide, no active elastase was produced. The enzyme was poorly released from the cytoplasmic membrane and, depending on the expression level, it was either degraded or it accumulated in an inactive form in the cell envelopes, probably as aggregates. Since proper folding is required for the release of translocated proteins from the cytoplasmic membrane and for the acquirement of a stable and active conformation, these results suggest that the propeptide is involved in the proper folding of the elastase and that it functions as an intramolecular chaperone. When mature elastase was expressed without its propeptide in P. aeruginosa , the enzyme was not secreted, and it was degraded. Therefore, proper folding of mature elastase appears to be required for secretion of the enzyme. Expression of the propeptide, as a separate polypeptide, in trans with mature elastase resulted in the formation of active elastase. This active enzyme was secreted in P. aeruginosa . Apparently, the propeptide can also function as an intermolecular chaperone.     

Role of the prosegment of Fasciola hepatica cathepsin L1 in folding of the catalytic domain

The N-terminal propeptides of cysteine proteinases play regulatory roles in the folding and stability of their catalytic domains, as well as being potent and highly specific inhibitors of their parental mature enzymes. Cysteine proteinases play a major role in the biology of the parasitic trematode Fasciola hepatica; in particular, this organism secretes significant amounts of cathepsin L enzymes. The isolated propeptide of F. hepatica cathepsin L1 functioned as a chaperone for the mature enzyme in renaturation experiments. A double point mutation (N701/F721) within the GxNxFxD motif of the propeptide affected its conformation and markedly decreased its affinity for the mature enzyme. When this mutation was introduced into preprocathepsin L1 expressed in yeast, the secretion of active enzyme dropped dramatically. However, significant enzyme activity was recovered from the culture supernatants after denaturation and renaturation in the presence of native propeptide. Thus, the variant prosegment gave rise to an enzyme with altered conformation, which could be refolded to the active form with the assistance of the native propeptide.     

Proregion of Bombyx mori cysteine proteinase functions as an intramolecular chaperone to promote proper folding of the mature enzyme.

A cDNA encoding the proform of Bombyx cysteine proteinase (BCP) was expressed at a high level in Escherichia coli using the T7 polymerase expression system. The insoluble recombinant zymogen was solubilized and renatured by modifying a method applied to human pro-cathepsin L. Like the natural BCP precursor, the recombinant proenzyme was spontaneously converted to an active proteinase at pH 3.75. A deletion in the central region of the propeptide resulted in much loss of the activity, suggesting that the propeptide is essential for proper folding during renaturation. In contrast, the renatured mature form of recombinant BCP was not active but regained activity by including the propeptide in the renaturing buffer, suggesting that the propeptide, acting as an intramolecular chaperone, promotes refolding of the associated proteinase domain into an active conformation. The mature form of natural BCP rapidly lost its activity at neutral pH, whereas its proform was stable. The mature enzyme retained some activity in the presence of the propeptide. Arch.     

Molecular cloning and expression in Escherichia coli of the extracellular endoprotease of Aeromonas caviae T-64, a pro-aminopeptidase processing enzyme(1).

PA protease (pro-aminopeptidase processing protease) activates the pro-aminopeptidases from Aeromonas caviae T-64 and Vibrio proteolytica by removal of their pro-regions. Cloning and sequencing of the PA protease gene revealed that PA protease was translated as a preproprotein consisting of four domains: a signal peptide; an N-terminal propeptide; a mature region; and a C-terminal propeptide. The deduced amino acid sequence of the PA protease precursor showed significant homology with several bacterial metalloproteases. Expression of the PA protease gene in Escherichia coli indicated that the N-terminal propeptide of the PA protease precursor is essential to obtain the active form of the protease. The N- and C-terminal propeptides of the expressed pro-PA protease were processed autocatalytically.     

丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂Ea的表达纯化与活性分析

Ea是一种植物来源的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,分子量为18kD。利用其与丝氨酸蛋白酶家族成员的结合特性,可用于丝氨酸蛋白酶的结构与功能研究,也可作为亲和层析的配体而用于丝氨酸蛋白酶的纯化。将Ea基因插入大肠杆菌表达载体pET11a,在BL21(DE3)菌中以包涵体形式表达出重组蛋白质,表达量可占菌体蛋白质总量的30%。将包涵体变性、复性,得到具有天然抑制活性的rEa。经两步纯化所得rEa的纯度达到967%以上。活性分析表明,rEa对胰蛋白酶和人组织型纤溶酶原激活剂均有抑制作用。制备成rEaSepharose亲和柱可有效结合胰蛋白酶。     

Folding of the Plasmodium falciparum cysteine protease falcipain-2 is mediated by a chaperone-like peptide and not the prodomain

Papain-family cysteine proteases of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, known as falcipains, are hemoglobinases and potential drug targets. Available data suggest that papain-family proteases require prodomains for correct folding into functional conformations. However, in prior studies of falcipain-2, an Escherichia coli-expressed construct containing only a small portion of the prodomain refolded efficiently, suggesting that this enzyme differs in this regard from other papain-family enzymes. To better characterize the determinants of folding for falcipain-2, we expressed multiple pro- and mature constructs of the enzyme in E. coli and assessed their abilities to refold. Mature falcipain-2 refolded into active protease with very similar properties to those of proteins resulting from the refolding of proenzyme constructs. Deletion of a 17-amino acid amino-terminal segment of the mature protease yielded a construct incapable of correct folding, but inclusion of this segment in trans allowed folding to active falcipain-2. The prodomain was a potent, competitive, and reversible inhibitor of mature falcipain-2 (K(i) 10(-10) m). Our results identify a chaperone-like function of an amino-terminal segment of mature falcipain-2 and suggest that protease inhibition, but not the mediation of folding, is a principal function of the falcipain-2 prodomain.     

Isolation, renaturation, and formation of disulfide bonds of eukaryotic proteins expressed in Escherichia coli as inclusion bodies

Expression of recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli often results in the formation of insoluble inclusion bodies, In case of expression of eukaryotic proteins containing cysteine, which may form disulfide bonds in the native active protein, often nonnative inter- and intramolecular disulfide bonds exist in the inclusion bodies. Hence, several methods have been developed to isolate recombinant eukaryotic polypeptides from inclusion bodies, and to generate native disulfide bonds, to get active proteins. This article summarizes the different steps and methods of isolation and renaturation of eukaryotic proteins containing disulfide bonds, which have been expressed in E. coli as inclusion bodies, and shows which methods originally developed for studying the folding mechanism of naturally occurring proteins have been successfully adapted for reactivation of recombinant eukaryotic proteins. (c) 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Folding pathway mediated by an intramolecular chaperone: dissecting conformational changes coincident with autoprocessing and the role of Ca(2+) in subtilisin maturation.

Subtilisin is produced as a precursor that requires its N-terminal propeptide to chaperone the folding of its protease domain. Once folded, subtilisin adopts a remarkably stable conformation, which has been attributed to a high affinity Ca(2+) binding site. We investigated the role of the metal ligand in the maturation of pro-subtilisin, a process that involves folding, autoprocessing and partial degradation. Our results establish that although Ca(2+) ions can stabilize the protease domain, the folding and autoprocessing of pro-subtilisin take place independent of Ca(2+) ion. We demonstrate that the stabilizing effect of calcium is observed only after the completion of autoprocessing and that the metal ion appears to be responsible for shifting the folding equilibrium towards the native conformation in both mature subtilisin and the autoprocessed propeptide:subtilisin complex. Furthermore, the addition of active subtilisin to unautoprocessed pro-subtilisin in trans does not facilitate precursor maturation, but rather promotes rapid autodegradation. The primary cleavage site that initiates this autodegradation is at Gln19 in the N-terminus of mature subtilisin. This corresponds to the loop that links alpha-helix-2 and beta-strand-1 in mature subtilisin and has indirect effects on the formation of the Ca(2+) binding site. Our results show that the N-terminus of mature subtilisin undergoes rearrangement subsequent to propeptide autoprocessing. Since this structural change enhances the proteolytic stability of the precursor, our results suggest that the autoprocessing reaction must be completed before the release of active subtilisin in order to maximize folding efficiency.     

Confirmation of Vpr as a fibrinolytic enzyme present in extracellular proteins of Bacillus subtilis

We have previously reported a proteomic approach to detect fibrinolytic enzymes from the secreted proteins of Bacillus subtilis 168 and identified two extracellular fibrinolytic enzymes of Bacillus, namely, Vpr and WprA. In this study, to confirm the fibrinolytic activity of Vpr, we cloned the vpr gene and expressed it in Escherichia coli, where it is predominantly localized to inclusion bodies. After affinity purification and desalting steps, the expressed Vpr is auto-processed to an active form. Interestingly, after the desalting step, several additional bands with fibrinolytic activity were detected in zymography gel along with a mature form (68 kDa) of Vpr. MALDI-TOF analyses of these bands revealed that Vpr could exist in multiple forms.     

Correct folding of alpha-lytic protease is required for its extracellular secretion from Escherichia coli

alpha-Lytic protease is a bacterial serine protease of the trypsin family that is synthesized as a 39-kD preproenzyme (Silen, J. L., C. N. McGrath, K. R. Smith, and D. A. Agard. 1988. Gene (Amst.). 69: 237-244). The 198-amino acid mature protease is secreted into the culture medium by the native host, Lysobacter enzymogenes (Whitaker, D. R. 1970. Methods Enzymol. 19:599-613). Expression experiments in Escherichia coli revealed that the 166-amino acid pro region is transiently required either in cis (Silen, J. L., D. Frank, A. Fujishige, R. Bone, and D. A. Agard. 1989. J. Bacteriol. 171:1320-1325) or in trans (Silen, J. L., and D. A. Agard. 1989. Nature (Lond.). 341:462-464) for the proper folding and extracellular accumulation of the enzyme. The maturation process is temperature sensitive in E. coli; unprocessed precursor accumulates in the cells at temperatures above 30 degrees C (Silen, J. L., D. Frank, A. Fujishige, R. Bone, and D. A. Agard. 1989. J. Bacteriol. 171:1320-1325). Here we show that full-length precursor produced at nonpermissive temperatures is tightly associated with the E. coli outer membrane. The active site mutant Ser 195----Ala (SA195), which is incapable of self-processing, also accumulates as a precursor in the outer membrane, even when expressed at permissive temperatures. When the protease domain is expressed in the absence of the pro region, the misfolded, inactive protease also cofractionates with the outer membrane. However, when the folding requirement for either wild-type or mutant protease domains is provided by expressing the pro region in trans, both are efficiently secreted into the extracellular medium. Attempts to separate folding and secretion functions by extensive deletion mutagenesis within the pro region were unsuccessful. Taken together, these results suggest that only properly folded and processed forms of alpha-lytic protease are efficiently transported to the medium.     

Molecular cloning and sequencing of a cDNA coding for mature human kidney cathepsin H

A cDNA library was established from human kidney RNA and screened with an extended oligonucleotide probe derived from the amino-acid sequence of human cathepsin H. A recombinant clone, pRF15, was isolated and characterized. DNA sequence analysis of its 1106-nucleotide-long insert revealed that pRF15 encodes the complete protein sequence of mature cathepsin H plus 28 amino acids of a propeptide, thus confirming that cathepsin H is synthesized as a larger precursor molecule and posttranslationally processed. Northern blot analysis indicated that cathepsin H is predominantly synthesized in kidney. A high degree of sequence homology was observed with rat cathepsin H, especially within the propeptide. The part of the prosequence coding for the "minichain" is conserved in the prosequence of aleurain, a plant thiol protease.     

Streptomyces griseus Protease B: Secretion Correlates with the Length of the Propeptide

Streptomyces griseus protease B, a member of the chymotrypsin superfamily, is encoded by a gene that expresses a pre-pro-mature protein. During secretion the precursor protein is processed into a mature, fully folded protease. In this study, we constructed a family of genes which encode deletions at the amino-terminal end of the propeptide. The secretion of active protease B was seen to decrease in an exponential manner according to the length of the deletion. The results underscore the intimate relationship between folding and secretion in bacterial protease expression. They further suggest that the propeptide segment of the zymogen stabilizes the folding of the mature enzyme through many small binding interactions over the entire surface of the peptide rather than through a few specific contacts.     

Heterologous gene expression in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis: synthesis, secretion, and processing of the Bacillus subtilis neutral protease.

The Bacillus subtilis nprE gene lacking its own promoter sequence was inserted in the lactococcal expression vector pMG36e. Upon introduction of the recombinant plasmid into Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strain MG1363, neutral protease activity could be visualized by the appearance of large clearing zones around colonies grown on milk agar plates. By measuring the activities of the neutral protease and the intracellular enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in culture supernatants and cell fractions, it was demonstrated that the neutral protease was actively secreted into the growth medium. This was corroborated by using the Western blot (immunoblot) technique, which showed the presence of the mature form of the neutral protease in the culture supernatant. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that the B. subtilis neutral protease gene was expressed in L. lactis and that the gene product was secreted into the growth medium and was apparently correctly processed to produced a biologically active protein. The secretion of this particular enzyme may be helpful in achieving accelerated cheese ripening.     

Heterologous gene expression in Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis: synthesis, secretion, and processing of the Bacillus subtilis neutral protease

The Bacillus subtilis nprE gene lacking its own promoter sequence was inserted in the lactococcal expression vector pMG36e. Upon introduction of the recombinant plasmid into Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis strain MG1363, neutral protease activity could be visualized by the appearance of large clearing zones around colonies grown on milk agar plates. By measuring the activities of the neutral protease and the intracellular enzyme lactate dehydrogenase in culture supernatants and cell fractions, it was demonstrated that the neutral protease was actively secreted into the growth medium. This was corroborated by using the Western blot (immunoblot) technique, which showed the presence of the mature form of the neutral protease in the culture supernatant. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that the B. subtilis neutral protease gene was expressed in L. lactis and that the gene product was secreted into the growth medium and was apparently correctly processed to produced a biologically active protein. The secretion of this particular enzyme may be helpful in achieving accelerated cheese ripening.     

Processing of an NH2-terminally extended thermostable alpha-amylase by Bacillus subtilis alkaline protease

To analyze the processing of extracellular enzymes of Bacillus subtilis, an NH2-terminally extended hybrid alpha-amylase [pTUBE638-alpha-amylase (E24)] was purified from the periplasm of E. coli(pTUBE638) as the substrate for the in vitro processing reaction, in which a 21-amino-acid extra-peptide was added at the NH2-terminus of the mature thermostable alpha-amylase. The extended peptide in pTUBE638-alpha-amylase (E24) was completely processed by the extracellular alkaline protease of B. subtilis alone at pH 7.5 to 10.0. The processing was inhibited by 2 mM PMSF. In contrast, the neutral protease did not process the extended peptide. The processing activity of the purified alkaline protease was fully active in 100 mM phosphate and glycine-NaCl-NaOH buffer while it was partially active in 100 mM Tris-HCl or MOPS buffer. The optimum pH of the activity ranged from 8.0 to 9.0, although the optimum pH of the alkaline protease activity toward casein and Azocoll was 10.5. The NH2-terminal amino acid sequences of the enzymes processed in vitro coincided with those of the mature extracellular thermostable alpha-amylases in the culture medium of B. subtilis (pTUBE638). The appearance of the processing activity of alkaline protease was correlated with the changes of the pH in the culture medium.     

Folding pathway mediated by an intramolecular chaperone: propeptide release modulates activation precision of pro-subtilisin

Propeptides of several proteases directly catalyze the protein folding reaction. Uncatalyzed folding traps these proteases into inactive molten-globule-like conformers that switch into active enzymes only when their cognate propeptides are added in trans. Although tight binding and proteolytic susceptibility forces propeptides to function as single turnover catalysts, the significance of their inhibitory function and the mechanism of activation remain unclear. Using pro-subtilisin as a model, we establish that precursor activation is a highly coordinated process that involves synchronized folding, autoprocessing, propeptide release, and protease activation. Our results demonstrate that activation is controlled by release of the first free active protease molecule. This triggers an exponential cascade that selectively targets the inhibitory propeptide in the autoprocessed complex as its substrate. However, a mutant precursor that enhances propeptide release can drastically reduce the folding efficiency by altering the synergy between individual stages. Our results represent the first demonstration that propeptide release, not precursor folding, is the rate-determining step and provides the basis for the proposed model for precise spatial and temporal activation that allows proteases to function as regulators of biological function.     

The role of tryptophan residues in the autoprocessing of prosubtilisin E

Subtilisin E, a serine protease from Bacillus subtilis, requires an N-terminal propeptide for its correct folding. The propeptide is autocleaved and digested by the subtilisin domain upon proper folding. Here we investigated the individual roles of the three Trp residues within the subtilisin domain (Trp106, Trp113 and Trp241) on propeptide processing, enzymatic activity and stability of subtilisin. When the propeptide processing was examined by SDS-PAGE after refolding by rapid dilution, the mutation at either position Trp106 or Trp113 was found to significantly delay the propeptide processing, while the mutation at Trp241 had no effect. Far-UV circular dichroism (CD) spectra of the mutants revealed that the mutations at the three positions did not affect appreciably the alpha-helix content of subtilisin. Secondary structure thermal unfolding monitored by CD spectroscopy revealed that none of the tryptophan residues had any significant effect on the stability of mature subtilisin. The enzymatic activity measurements showed that only Trp106 plays a major role in the enzymatic activity of subtilisin E. These results demonstrate that both Trp106 and Trp113 play a specific role in propeptide processing and enzymatic activity, while Trp241 plays no considerable role on any of these activities.     

Folding and activation of recombinant human prorenin

In vitro folding of mature renin, prorenin, and fused prorenin, all produced in denatured form in inclusion bodies in recombinant Escherichia coli, has been studied in order to evaluate the importance of prosequence in the folding of human renin. These studies have been compared with the in vivo folding and subsequent in vitro activation of recombinant human prorenin secreted by a nonbacterial expression system, namely Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells grown in serum-free medium. It is concluded that prosequence is essential in the folding of human renin and, therefore, the DNA coding for this sequence cannot be removed without affecting the recovery of active human renin from recombinant bacterial and nonbacterial systems.