Aspects of the reproductive biology ofPollicipes pollicipes (Cirripedia; Lepadomorpha) from the southwest coast of Portugal

The pedunculated cirripedePollicipes pollicipes is of considerable economic importance in Portugal, particularly along the southwest coast. Current knowledge of its biology is poor, as evidenced by the paucity of available literature. This paper reports on the reproduction of twoP. pollicipes populations, Castelejo and Zavial, on the southwest coast of the Algarve. Differences in reproductive patterns between the two sites were minor and not statistically significant, despite differences in environmental conditions between the two sites. Adult animals carried fertilised eggs from April throughout September, and the percentage of individuals with egg masses correlated positively with air but not with sea water temperature. Brooding success was greater with average air temperature in excess of 14°C during months of strong upwelling and presumed food availability. Functional ovaries and testes are available in the population all year round but fertilisation does not appear to occur during the winter months. Reproduction ofP. pollicipes on the southwest coast of the Algarve appears closely linked to the upwelling phenomenon with the rate of deposition of gonadal tissue probably being determined by environmental temperature. The cues which determine the cessation of fertilisation remain to be investigated.     

Dietary selection by yakushima macaques ( Macaca fuscata yakui ): The influence of food availability and temperature

I examined dietary selection by Yakushima macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui)in relation to food availability and air temperature. Multiple regression analysis indicates that both food availability and temperature influenced the selection of foods. Feeding on young leaves, seeds, and flowers was affected more by availability, while feeding on fruits, mature leaves, and fallen seeds was affected more by temperature. Feeding on insects is strongly correlated with temperature,perhaps because availability of insects increased with temperature. These results suggest that temperature influences dietary selection of Yakushima macaques by changing the energy expenditure required for thermoregulation and through its influence on the accessibility to insects, which are an important protein source for the monkeys.     

Effects of season,food deprivation and re-feeding on leptin,ghrelin and growth hormone in arctic foxes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alopex lagopus</Emphasis>) on Svalbard,Norway

The arctic fox (Alopex lagopus) is a medium-sized predator of the high Arctic experiencing extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability, photoperiod and temperature. In this study, the plasma leptin, ghrelin and growth hormone (GH) concentrations of male arctic foxes were determined during a food deprivation period of 13 days and the subsequent recovery in November and May. Leptin, ghrelin and GH were present in arctic fox plasma in amounts comparable to other carnivores. The plasma leptin concentrations did not react to food deprivation unlike in humans and rodents. However, the leptin levels increased during re-feeding as an indicator of increasing energy reserves. The relatively high ghrelin–leptin ratio, decrease in the plasma ghrelin concentration, an increase in the circulating GH concentrations and the observed negative correlation between plasma ghrelin and free fatty acid levels during fasting suggest that these hormones take part in the weight-regulation and energy metabolism of this species by increasing fat utilisation during food deprivation. The results strengthen the hypothesis that the actions of these weight-regulatory hormones are species–specific and depend on seasonality and the life history of the animals.Abbreviations FFA free fatty acid - GH growth hormone - RMR resting metabolic rate Communicated by G. Heldmaier     

Comparative Feeding Ecology of Sympatric <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microcebus berthae and M. murinus</Emphasis>

Most Malagasy primate communities harbor a diverse assemblage of omnivorous species. The mechanisms allowing the coexistence of closely related species are poorly understood, partly because only preliminary data on the feeding ecology of most species are available. We provide an exemplary feeding ecology data set to illuminate coexistence mechanisms between sympatric gray and Madame Berthe’s mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus, M. berthae). We studied their feeding ecology in Kirindy Forest/CFPF, a highly seasonal dry deciduous forest in western Madagascar. Between August 2002 and December 2007, we regularly (re-)captured, marked, and radiotracked females of both species. A combination of direct behavioral observations and fecal analyses revealed that both Microcebus species used fruit, arthropods, gum, insect secretions, and small vertebrates as food sources. However, Microcebus berthae and M. murinus differed in both composition and seasonal variation of their diets. Whereas the diet of Microcebus murinus varied seasonally and was generally more diverse, M. berthae relied mainly on insect secretions supplemented by animal matter. The differences were also reflected in a very narrow feeding niche of Microcebus berthae and a comparatively broad feeding niche of M. murinus. Resource use patterns of Madame Berthe’s and more so of opportunistic gray mouse lemurs broadly followed resource availability within the strongly seasonal dry forest. Feeding niche overlap between the 2 sympatric species was high, indicating that food resource usage patterns did not reflect niche partitioning, but can instead be explained by constraints due to food availability.     

Diet and Feeding Ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ateles chamek</Emphasis> in a Bolivian Semihumid Forest: The Importance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ficus</Emphasis> as a Staple Food Resource

We describe temporal patterns of food consumption by Peruvian spider monkeys (Ateles chamek) in a semihumid forest in lowland Bolivia. We assessed dietary composition in relation to temporal variation in abundance, duration, and synchrony of different food items in their home range. We collected data from September 2003 to September 2004, in the forestry concession La Chonta, Department of Santa Cruz. Throughout the period of detailed feeding data collection (February-September 2004), Ateles chamek used Ficus as a staple food resource. Figs constituted almost 50% of their diet in terms of total time spent feeding, and subjects consumed them to a great extent even during times of high overall food availability. This is contrary to the general expectation that for Neotropical frugivores, Ficus is a fallback food in times of fruit scarcity, rather than a staple food resource. Surprisingly, despite being considered ripe fruit specialists, Ateles chamek spent 18% of their feeding times eating unripe figs. Ateles chamek consumed unripe figs all through the year, including periods when ripe figs and other ripe fruit were abundant. We identify other important fallback foods for Ateles chamek in the forest, in particular the ripe fruit of Myrciaria sp.     

Adjusting energy expenditures to energy supply: food availability regulates torpor use and organ size in the Chilean mouse-opossum <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thylamys elegans</Emphasis>

We studied how food abundance and consumption regulates torpor use and internal organ size in the Chilean mouse-opossum Thylamys elegans (Dielphidae), a small nocturnal marsupial, endemic in southern South America. We predicted that exposure to food rations at or above the minimum energy levels necessary for maintenance would not lead to any signs of torpor, while reducing food supply to energy levels below maintenance would lead to marked increases in frequency, duration and depth of torpor bouts. We also analyzed the relationship between food availability and internal organ mass. We predicted a positive relationship between food availability and internal organ size once the effect of body size is removed. Animals were randomly assigned to one of two groups and fed either 70, 100 or 130% of their daily energy requirement (DER). We found a positive and significant correlation between %DER and body temperature, and also between %DER and minimum body temperature. In contrast, for torpor frequency, duration and depth, we found a significant negative correlation with %DER. Finally, we found a significant positive correlation between the %DER and small intestine and ceacum dry mass. We demonstrate that when food availability is limited, T. elegans has the capacity to reduce their maintenance cost by two different mechanisms, that is, increasing the use of torpor and reducing organ mass.     

Spatial variation in density of stream benthic fishes in northern Hokkaido, Japan: does riparian vegetation affect fish density via food availability?

The densities of two benthic fishes, the Siberian stone loach (Noemacheilus barbatulus) and the wrinklehead sculpin (Cottus nozawae), and the biomass of their food resources (i.e., periphyton and benthic invertebrates) were compared between forest and grassland streams in northern Hokkaido, Japan, to examine whether riparian deforestation had positive effects on the benthic fishes via enhancement of food availability. The comparisons indicated that riparian vegetation had little influence on periphyton, invertebrates, or fishes. Regression analysis indicated that spatial variations in loach and sculpin densities were explained more by substrate heterogeneity, competitor abundance, or both, rather than by food abundance. However, when the two species were combined as benthic insectivores, a strong correlation was found between total benthic fish density and invertebrate biomass. Our results suggest that, although total benthic fish abundance was food limited, riparian vegetation had no positive effects via food availability on the benthic fishes in our streams.     

Habitat-mediated cannibalism and microhabitat restriction in the stream invertebrate <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gammarus pulex</Emphasis>

In cannibalistic species, small individuals often shift habitats to minimize risk of predation by larger conspecifics. The availability of diverse size-structured habitats may mediate the incidence of cannibalism by larger individuals on smaller individuals and increase fitness of smaller individuals. We tested these hypotheses in a series of laboratory studies with Gammarus pulex, a freshwater amphipod inhabiting substrates with varying interstitial pore space sizes. In the absence of larger, potentially cannibalistic individuals, small Gammarus actively used all pore space sizes offered. They used only substrates containing food and preferred food items that provided cover to food items that did not. In the presence of larger G. pulex, small individuals almost exclusively used smaller pore spaces from which larger individuals were excluded. Small individual survival was significantly lower in the presence of larger Gammarus than in controls without larger individuals regardless of substrate size, but availability of mixed pore sizes significantly increased survival. Food consumption and growth per individual were not affected by the presence of larger individuals or substrate composition. Our results suggest that the distribution and availability of complex and high-quality habitats may affect the occurrence and significance of cannibalism in size-structured populations. Handling editor: K. Martens     

食物限制对黑线仓鼠免疫功能的影响

温带地区小型哺乳动物经常面临着食物资源的波动。食物对动物的免疫功能具有重要影响。将19只成年雄性黑线仓鼠(Cricetulus barabensis)随机分为自由取食组(n=9)和限食组(n=10)。注射植物血球凝集素(PHA)来测定细胞介导的免疫反应,用匙孔血蓝蛋白(KLH)免疫动物,然后测定抗KLH抗体的浓度以反映其体液免疫功能。旨在检验食物限制是否会抑制黑线仓鼠的细胞免疫和体液免疫功能。结果发现,与对照组相比,限食组黑线仓鼠具有较低的体重、体脂、脾脏鲜重、血清瘦素水平、免疫球蛋白Ig G和Ig M浓度。而限食对胸腺鲜重、白细胞数、皮质酮水平以及PHA反应没有显著影响。结果表明黑线仓鼠免疫系统的不同成分对限食反应存在差异,在食物资源短缺时,黑线仓鼠防御细胞外病原体的能力降低,从而导致生存能力的下降。     

Birth Seasonality in Alouatta caraya in Northern Argentina

Given appropriate ecological and social conditions, natural selection should favor individuals that can concentrate their reproductive events to a particular time of the year that offers high opportunities for infant survivorship. Previous studies on births in Alouatta caraya in Northern Argentina revealed the existence of a peak during the dry season—a period with scarcity of food resources—in mainland gallery forest (G. E. Zunino, Extra 133: 1–10, 1996). The time of conception and the period of independence of the offspring are positively correlated with precipitation, temperature and availability of food. Offspring became independent from their mothers when the availability of resources was high, and conception coincided with the peak of fruit production. Our goal was to examine patterns of birth seasonality in Alouatta caraya in flooded forest on an island in Northern Argentina for comparison with the mainland population. Both sites are at similar latitudes, but differ in forest type. The results indicate that the availability of new and mature leaves is more consistent throughout the year in the flooded forest (p<0.05); however, there was no difference in the availability of fleshy fruits between sites (p>0.05). The pattern of births differed between the gallery forest and the flooded forest (2-way Anova, p<0.001). In the flooded forest births occurred throughout the year, which supports the contentions that howlers do not have a fixed birth season and that the observed variation in the timing of births appears to represent a facultative behavioral response to changes in food availability.     

In situ versus laboratory estimations of length–weight regression and growth rate of Daphnia magna (Branchiopoda, Anomopoda) from an aerated waste stabilization pond

The present paper questions the adequacy of using length–weight regressions and growth rates calculated in the laboratory under constant physico-chemical and food conditions for the estimation of biomass and secondary production of animals living in a variable environment from the physico-chemistry and food availability point of view. Length–weight regressions (LWR) and growth rate of Daphnia magna were determined in situat five key periods of the year. In parallel, LWR and growth rate were determined in laboratory incubators at temperature adjusted to the mean temperature measured during the in situexperiments. LWR estimated from pond daphnids collected during the in situ experiments were, on the whole, not significantly different from LWR established during laboratory experiments, indicating that the food availability was globally similar in the laboratory and in situexperiments, even though food items were substantially different between the experiments. In situ algal biomass was indeed low compared to the algal biomass in laboratory experiments, but high biomasses of bacteria, protozoa and detritus were available for daphnid feeding in the tubes incubated in situ. Growth rate of D. magnawas monitored in situusing 50-ml tubes closed with Nylon net (mesh size = 80 m) and in the laboratory using 50-ml glass flasks. The physico-chemical, bacteriological and algological variables were checked to be similar in the tubes and in the pond. Growth rates varied according to the size of the animal and according to the water temperature. The maximum growth rates were observed for juveniles at 20.2 °C. Growth rates were also determined in the laboratory at temperature corresponding to the mean temperature recorded in the pond during the in situ growth experiments. Differences between in situ and laboratory body length–growth rate regressions (LgR) were observed for the experiments conducted at 15.6 °C and 23.6 °C. Due to differences in LWR and LgR between in situ and laboratory experiments, biomass and daily production estimated from laboratory cultures were found to be significantly, but not severely, higher than biomass and daily production estimated on the basis of in situ experiments. It has been, therefore, concluded that, when the constraints linked to the realization of in situ growth experiments are too strong, the laboratory approach is fully justified.     

Time budget of the green monkey,Cercopithecus sabaeus: Some optimal strategies

Members of a single group of green monkeys spent, on average, 44.8% of their waking time foraging, 46.7% resting, and 8.5% in social activities, over 1 year. There was significant variation in activity budgets over months (ranging from 35 to 55% of the time spent feeding). Diurnal rhythms of feeding and ranging were influenced by the daily cycle of temperature in predictable ways in different seasons: in the dry season, activity was reduced if it was too hot or too cold, while the temperature in the wet season did not affect activities. Feeding was also synchronized among individuals on a finer time scale, irrespective of the time of day. There was closer synchrony when feeding on less common foods. An ecological model of foraging time and energetics was tested, using estimates of the costs and benefits of foraging and predicting how these are optimally balanced in relation to the food density. Both feeding time and distance traveled increased as food availability increased. Costs and benefits were balanced over several days. Comparisons between populations of Cercopithecus aethiopswere made; differences in time budgets were compared with differences in the availability and quality of food. Insufficient comparative data are available for firm conclusions about the role of different energetic and nutritive strategies in population differences.     

Life history variability of a grazing stream insect (Liponeura cinerascens minor; Diptera: Blephariceridae)

SUMMARY 1. Fourteen populations of Liponeura cinerascens minor from different sites in the Swiss Alps were investigated. Our goals were to describe the life history of this blepharicerid species and to analyse how it was influenced by temperature and food availability. 2. Temperature regimes and periphyton density at the sampling sites varied considerably. Mean annual temperature ranged from 3.8 to 6.5 °C, with annual amplitudes (i.e. the difference between the mean of the coldest and the warmest month) between 3.7 and 12.0 °C. Averaged periphyton density, which was assessed semiquantitatively on a scale from 0 to 5, ranged from 1.1 to 3.3. 3. Larvae or pupae of L. c. minor were found between January and October. Presence of larvae or pupae at individual sites ranged from 100 to 224 days and appeared to be mainly a result of hatching patterns. Individual larval development required between 7 and 20 weeks. Our findings suggest that L. c. minor is univoltine and undergoes an extended (≥4 months) egg dormancy during late summer, autumn and winter. 4. Development of L. c. minor was observed from <1 to 15.8 °C, indicating it is a cold‐stenotherm. Its geographical distribution seems to be constrained by high summer temperatures. Within the tolerated temperature range (0–16 °C), however, temperature had no apparent effect on hatching, larval growth rate or pupal size. 5. Larval growth rate and size of pupae were significantly correlated with food availability. Completion of larval development required 300–400 degree‐days at sites where periphyton was readily available, but >800 degree‐days where periphyton availability was low. 6. No evidence for intraspecific food competition was found, whereas food competition by other blepharicerid species, mainly Hapalothrix lugubris, appeared to be a major reason for the observed food limitation. However, as L. c. minor is much more widespread than H. lugubris, food competition between these two species is likely to occur infrequently. We therefore contend that variations in the life history of L. c. minor are mainly a consequence of its thermal constraints.     

Synergistic effects of food shortage and an insecticide on a <Emphasis Type="Italic">Daphnia</Emphasis> population: rapid decline of food density at the peak of population density reduces tolerance to the chemical and induces a large population crash

Laboratory populations of cloned Daphnia magna were exposed at different population phases (growing phase, density peak, stable phase) to the insecticide carbaryl at 15 μg 1⁻¹, which was harmful to juveniles but not to adults, and their population dynamics were analyzed. The population declined most at the density peak, when not only juveniles but also many adult individuals died. To analyze the factors affecting population vulnerability to carbaryl, acute toxicity tests were conducted using Daphnia individuals of different body sizes under different food conditions. The test revealed that daphnid sensitivity to carbaryl increased greatly when food density was changed from a high food level to a low level. This food condition, of low availability, might be the condition to which the Daphnia populations were exposed at their density peak. The synergism of the negative impacts of anthropogenic and natural stresses such as insecticides and food shortage may control aquatic populations.     

Environmental Determinants of Birth Seasonality in Night Monkeys (Aotus azarai) of the Argentinean Chaco

The night monkeys (Aotus azarai) of Formosa, Argentina provide an opportunity to investigate the influences of ambient temperature and photoperiod on reproduction in a highly seasonal environment: the Chaco. Between 1997 and 2000, we collected data to evaluate the relationship between rainfall, ambient temperature, photoperiod and food availability and the annual distribution of mating behavior and births in 15 groups of monkeys in the forests of the Eastern Argentinean Chaco. Our data show that the area is highly seasonal, characterized by significant fluctuations in rainfall, temperature, photoperiod and food availability. There are two rain peaks in April and November and a dry season lasting from June to August. Monthly mean temperatures were on average 11°C lower during winter months than they were during summer months. Temperatures <10°C and >33°C were also frequent through the year. Days are 3 h longer during the summer than during the winter months. Insect abundance and the percentage of tree species producing fruits, flowers or new leaves reached a low in the coldest winter months. Mating was infrequent, and we only observed it between May and September. Half the births (n = 13) occurred during a 2-week period in October. Infant survival during the first 6 mo of life was high (96%). Our findings suggest an environmental control of reproduction. Changes in photoperiod and temperature may promote reproductive activity in females that might conceive and begin pregnancy at a time void of high temperatures that could be metabolically challenging.     

Adaptive mechanisms during food restriction in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acomys russatus</Emphasis>: the use of torpor for desert survival

The golden spiny mouse (Acomys russatus) is an omnivorous desert rodent that does not store food, but can store large amounts of body fat. Thus, it provides a good animal model to study physiological and behavioural adaptations to changes in food availability. The aim of this study was to investigate the time course of metabolic and behavioural responses to prolonged food restriction. Spiny mice were kept at an ambient temperature of 27°C and for 3 weeks their food was reduced individually to 30% of their previous ad libitum food intake. When fed ad libitum, their average metabolic rate was 82.77±3.72 ml O₂ h^–1 during the photophase and 111.19±4.30 ml O₂ h^–1 during the scotophase. During food restriction they displayed episodes of daily torpor when the minimal metabolic rate gradually decreased to 16.07±1.07 ml O₂ h^–1, i.e. a metabolic rate depression of approximately 83%. During the hypometabolic bouts the minimum average body temperature T_b, decreased gradually from 32.6±0.1°C to 29.0±0.4°C, with increasing duration of consecutive bouts. In parallel, the animals increased their activity during the remaining daytime. Torpor as well as hyperactivity was suppressed immediately by refeeding. Thus golden spiny mice used two simultaneous strategies to adapt to shortened food supply, namely energysaving torpor during their resting period and an increase in locomotor activity pattern during their activity period.     

Impact of food concentration on diel vertical migration behaviour of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Daphnia pulex</Emphasis> under fish predation risk

Vertical migration of Daphnia represents the best-studied predator-avoidance behaviour known; yet the mechanisms underlying the choice to migrate require further investigation to understand the role of environmental context. To investigate the optimal habitat choice of Daphnia under fish predation pressure, first, we selected the individuals exhibiting strong migration behaviour. The animals collected from the hypolimnion during the daytime were significantly larger, being more conspicuous, and in turn performed stronger diel vertical migration (DVM) when exposed to fish cue. We called them strong migrants. Second, we provided the strong migrant D. pulex with food at high and intermediate (1 and 0.4 mg C l⁻¹, respectively) levels, which were well above the incipient limiting level and of high quality. They traded the benefits of staying in the warm water layer and moved down to the cold water in response to fish cue indicating fish predation. The availability of food allowed the animals to stay in the cold hypolimnion. However, at the low food level (0.1 mg C l⁻¹), which is an additional constraint on fitness, Daphnia moved away from the cold hypolimnion. Poor food condition resulted in strong migrant Daphnia to cease migration and remain in the upper warmer water layer. Although temperature is known to be a more important cost factor of DVM than food, our results clearly show that this is only true as long as food is available. It becomes clear that food availability is controlling the direction of vertical positioning when daphnids experience a dilemma between optimising temperature and food condition while being exposed to fish cue. Then they overlook the predation risk. Thus, the optimal habitat choice of Daphnia appears to be a function of several variables including temperature, food levels and fish predation. Handling editor: S. I. Dodson     

Does the Jarman–Bell principle at intra-specific level explain sexual segregation in polygynous ungulates? Sex differences in forage digestibility in Soay sheep

Fat accumulation by blackcaps (Sylvia atricapilla) is a prerequisite for successful migratory flight in the autumn and has recently been determined to be constrained by availability of drinking water. Birds staging in a fruit-rich Pistacia atlantica plantation that had access to water increased their body mass and fat reserves both faster and to a greater extent than birds deprived of water. We conducted a series of laboratory experiments on birds captured during the autumn migration period in which we tested the hypotheses that drinking water increases food use by easing limitations on the birds’ dietary choices and, consequently, feeding and food processing rates, and that the availability of drinking water leads to improved digestion and, therefore, to higher apparent metabolizable energy. Blackcaps were trapped in autumn in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel and transferred to individual cages in the laboratory. Birds were provided with P. atlantica fruit and mealworms, and had either free access to water (controls) or were water-deprived. In experiment 1, in which mealworm availability was restricted, water-deprived birds had a fourfold lower fruit and energy intake rates and, consequently, gained less fat and total mass than control birds. Water availability did not affect food metabolizability. In experiment 2, in which mealworms were provided ad libitum, water availability influenced the birds’ diet: water-restricted birds ate more mealworms, while control birds consumed mainly P. atlantica fruit. Further, in experiment 2, fat and mass gain did not differ between the two treatment groups. We conclude that water availability may have important consequences for fat accumulation in migrating birds while they fatten at stopover sites, especially when water-rich food is scarce. Restricted water availability may also impede the blackcap’s dietary shift from insectivory to frugivory, a shift probably necessary for successful pre-migratory fattening.     

Feeding ecology and activity pattern of black-fronted titi monkeys (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Callicebus nigrifrons</Emphasis>) in a semideciduous tropical forest of southern Brazil

Most aspects of the ecology and behavior of Callicebus nigrifrons are still unknown. The information available about this species is mainly based on a few studies that also focused on other Callicebus. We examined the feeding behavior and activity pattern of a free-ranging pair of C. nigrifrons between March and November 2007 in an area of semideciduous tropical forest of southeastern Brazil. The study site is located at the southern limit of the Tropical Zone and is characterized by pronounced seasonality. As observed for other Callicebus monkeys, fruits were the most consumed food resource, accounting for 53% of the diet, which was complemented mainly by leaves (16%) but also by invertebrates and flowers (10% of each). A great variety of plant families (28) and species (62) were included in the diet. The titis spent 35% of their time feeding, distributing the remaining time between resting (30%) and traveling (24%). Data presented here indicate that C. nigrifrons prefer high-quality food items (fruit pulp), adding low-quality food items (such as leaves) as the availability of the higher-quality foods decreases. The amount of time spent traveling and resting did not change between seasons, but the time invested in feeding increased during the lean period. The activity pattern was not related to fruit availability, but in months with lower temperatures, monkeys spent more time feeding. We suggest that the feeding ecology and activity pattern of C. nigrifrons reflect adaptations related to annual fluctuations in food availability and temperature, respectively.     

The adult body size variation of Dryas iulia (Lepidoptera,Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae) in different populations is more influenced by temperature variation than by host‐plant availability during the seasons

The body size of insects is affected by environmental conditions during development and can present considerable intraspecific variations, which can be seen as an ultimate consequence/adaptation to environmental conditions. This paper evaluated whether the body size of the butterfly Dryas iulia from subtropical populations was influenced by changing climate conditions and food source availability during the seasons. The likely reasons behind body size variation were also investigated. First, field data on body size variation, host‐plant availability and climate fluctuation throughout the seasons were recorded. Then, the effects of host‐plant species and temperature on body size were analyzed by controlled experiments. Field data revealed that body size and host‐plant availability varied significantly through the seasons. Populations had the smallest body size during the spring and the biggest size during summer, whereas host‐plant availability was lower during winter and higher during spring. The controlled experiments revealed that both temperature and host‐plant had significant effect on the plasticity of body size. Larvae subjected to winter temperature treatment led to smaller butterflies when compared to immatures reared under summer temperature treatment, and larvae fed with Passiflora misera produced bigger adults when compared to larvae reared on Passiflora suberosa. The combination of data gathered in the field and in the laboratory suggests that seasonal body size variation in D. iulia is related mainly to differences in the temperatures to which larvae are subjected during development, while host‐plant shifts caused by differential availability of food through the seasons had slightly effects on the variation observed.