The multidimensional nature of biodiversity and social dynamics and implications for contemporary rural livelihoods in remote Kalahari settlements, Botswana

Despite rapid socio-economic development in Kalahari drylands, contemporary research suggests that biodiversity remains important as a component of the complex portfolio of livelihood strategies, as a real and perceived safety net in times of stress, and a key factor of cultural identity. The degree to which the spatially and temporally dynamic nature of biodiversity in drylands influences livelihoods is, however, little studied, particularly in socially complex contemporary rural settlements. Greater understanding in this area is required to allow better-informed design and implementation of rural development, poverty alleviation and conservation initiatives. This is particularly true in the light of predicted increases in environmental dynamism with climate change. An interdisciplinary approach was used in two environmentally and socially distinct dryland settlements in Botswana, to investigate the extent to which the dynamic biodiverse setting influences contemporary rural livelihoods. Results illustrate that biodiversity, particularly its dynamics, is of critical contemporary importance to rural settlement livelihoods, particularly in times of inner settlement scarcity. Entitlements to biodiversity dynamics were, however, bound up by complex settlement-specific social, economic and political factors. Unless such contextual within-settlement dynamics are understood, the relative importance of biodiversity in rural development and poverty alleviation strategies in contemporary Kalahari drylands may be undermined.     

Variation of physico-chemical parameters along a river transect through the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The Okavango Delta depends on water quantity and quality to sustain its ecosystem services. Whereas many studies have been carried out on its hydrology, few have been done on water quality in the delta. Water pH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) were monitored at 10 sites along the Okavango–Boro–Thamalakane–Lake Ngami system almost fortnightly from June 2008 to June 2010. Water quality in the delta was generally good, despite high evapotranspiration rates which would normally produce very saline waters. Electrical conductivity and water temperature increased with distance from Mohembo to Lake Ngami, the former most likely due to evapoconcentration. In contrast, pH, DO, turbidity and TSS decreased with distance from Mohembo to Boro at the lower end of the seasonal floodplain, before increasing again to Lake Ngami. Dissolved oxygen and TSS most likely declined due to biological uptake and particle sedimentation, respectively. Strong and significant relationships were observed between TSS and turbidity and between DOC and EC, indicating that turbidity and EC could be useful proxies for routine estimations of TSS and DOC, respectively, in the delta.     

Nest niche dynamics of Meyer's Parrot Poicephalus meyeri in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

Meyer's Parrot Poicephalus meyeri is the only cavity-nesting bird species that breeds during winter in the Okavango Delta. This is facilitated by exclusive access to arthropod larvae incubating inside and feeding on fruits and pods in their diet. To minimise predation risk and overcome low overnight temperatures they have specialised, non-random nest cavity preferences that restrict them to 4.5% of the available nest cavities in the study area. Here we evaluated the nest niche of Meyer's Parrot by studying the nest tree preferences and ecological context of all nest cavities to determine factors that may restrict breeding success in disturbed or altered habitat. Although specific nest tree preferences were significantly different between host tree species, Meyer's Parrot preferred trees greater than 14 m in height that were in relatively poor condition (e.g. portion of the canopy dead). A comparison of nest tree characteristics (n = 75) and the availability of these tree specifications in a representative sample of the different habitat types (n = 1 129) within the sample area indicated that Meyer's Parrot are dependent on riverine forest, Acacia-Combretum marginal woodland and dry mopane woodland for nesting opportunities. Disturbance to hardwood trees by African elephants Loxodonta africana and fungal attack (e.g. Coriolus versicolor) are likely important dynamics in supporting healthy Meyer's Parrot populations and cavity-nesting bird communities.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of diffusive methane emissions in the Okavango Delta,northern Botswana,Africa

Global warming is associated with the continued increase in the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases; carbon dioxide, methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide. Wetlands constitute the largest single natural source of atmospheric CH₄ in the world contributing between 100 and 231 Tg year^?1 to the total budget of 503–610 Tg year^?1, approximately 60 % of which is emitted from tropical wetlands. We conducted diffusive CH₄ emission measurements using static chambers in river channels, floodplains and lagoons in permanent and seasonal swamps in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Diffusive CH₄ emission rates varied between 0.24 and 293 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1, with a mean (±SE) emission of 23.2 ± 2.2 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1 or 558 ± 53 mg CH₄ m^?2 day^?1. These emission rates lie within the range reported for other tropical wetlands. The emission rates were significantly higher (P < 0.007) in permanent than in seasonal swamps. River channels exhibited the highest average fluxes at 31.3 ± 5.4 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1 than in floodplains (20.4 ± 2.5 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1) and lagoons (16.9 ± 2.6 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1). Diffusive CH₄ emissions in the Delta were probably regulated by temperature since emissions were highest (20–300 mg CH₄ m^?2 h^?1) and lowest (0.2–3.0 mg m^?2 h^?1) during the warmer-rainy and cooler winter seasons, respectively. Surface water temperatures between December 2010 and January 2012 varied from 15.3 °C in winter to 33 °C in summer. Assuming mean inundation of 9,000 km², the Delta’s annual diffusive emission was estimated at 1.8 ± 0.2 Tg, accounting for 2.8 ± 0.3 % of the total CH₄ emission from global tropical wetlands.     

Land-use and resource conflicts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana

This study assesses land-use conflicts in the Okavango wetland ecosystem. A survey of the livelihood activities of a sample of four villages has been carried out and a stakeholder approach used to identify and analyse the key actors involved in resource competition and conflicts in the area. Traditional and emerging stakeholders were identified and found to be in conflict not only with each other but within themselves. Institutional policies on land use in the area are not properly harmonized, and there has been a top-down approach to development planning and implementation of development programmes. As a result, land-use conflicts have escalated in the area. The Okavango Delta Management Plan adopted in 2007 should integrate and harmonize all the land-use policies, and land management in the area.     

Environmental change over two decades since dredging and excavation of the lower Boro River, Okavango Delta, Botswana

The Okavango Delta, southern Africa's largest wetland, is situated on the fringe of the semi-arid Kalahari Desert. It is a large alluvial fan, occupying a graben structure which is an extension of the East African Rift system. Of the 16 km³ of water which enters the Delta each year, 96% is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, 2% to groundwater and only 2% leaves as surface flow. In order to increase surface outflow to meet human needs, the distal Boro channel–floodplain system was dredged, excavated and bunded between 1971 and 1974. The immediate impact of these measures was the destruction of in-channel flora. After 20 years, the aquatic flora has recovered in the excavated channel. However, little recovery has occurred along the channel reach which was dredged. Moreover, there has been significant encroachment of terrestrial species onto the floodplain in the region of the dredged channel. In addition, dredging created a nick point which has been migrating upstream by headward erosion since dredging ceased. The average rate of advance of the nick point has been about 500 m per year. Incision associated with nick point migration has produced a channel which is indistinguishable in form from the dredged channel and, like the dredged channel, is almost completely devoid of in-channel aquatic flora. The adverse environmental impact of dredging has therefore continued to propagate in an upstream direction, although the height of the nick point has decreased, suggesting a natural attenuation process. This is likely to result in eventual elimination of the nick point.     

Reproductive dynamics of the white shrimp Litopenaeus schmitti (Burkenroad 1936) in a beach seine fishery in northeastern Brazil

The aim of the present study was to investigate the reproductive dynamics of the Litopenaeus schmitti through macroscopic and microscopic analyses. Specimens were collected monthly from December 2016 to November 2017 through artisanal beach seine fishery in the municipality of Lucena, state of Paraíba, Brazil. A total of 1710 shrimp were caught and the proportion of males was significantly lower than that of females (43.51% and 56.49%). The ovarian maturation stages were classified as immature, initial development, advanced development, mature and spent. These classification criteria added an additional stage than those previously reported for this species on the Brazilian coast. The proportion of ovarian maturation stages per month suggest a seasonal reproductive cycle that extends from September to June, with no reproductive activity occurring in July and August. The reproductive activity was directly related to the precipitation and salinity in the area of the present study. Mean cephalothorax length at first gonad maturity for females (2.20 cm) was larger than values reported 13 years ago for this species in the same area. This finding may indicate that the prohibition of motorized trawler fishing in the area since 1990 is contributing to the more sustainable exploitation of this resource.     

Environmental variability and acoustic signals: a multi-level approach in songbirds

Among songbirds, growing evidence suggests that acoustic adaptation of song traits occurs in response to habitat features. Despite extensive study, most research supporting acoustic adaptation has only considered acoustic traits averaged for species or populations, overlooking intraindividual variation of song traits, which may facilitate effective communication in heterogeneous and variable environments. Fewer studies have explicitly incorporated sexual selection, which, if strong, may favour variation across environments. Here, we evaluate the prevalence of acoustic adaptation among 44 species of songbirds by determining how environmental variability and sexual selection intensity are associated with song variability (intraindividual and intraspecific) and short-term song complexity. We show that variability in precipitation can explain short-term song complexity among taxonomically diverse songbirds, and that precipitation seasonality and the intensity of sexual selection are related to intraindividual song variation. Our results link song complexity to environmental variability, something previously found for mockingbirds (Family Mimidae). Perhaps more importantly, our results illustrate that individual variation in song traits may be shaped by both environmental variability and strength of sexual selection.     

Community ecology and conservation of the fishes of the Okavango Delta,Botswana

Synopsis The Okavango Delta is a large inland swamp in northern Botswana which receives an annual flood from the highlands of southern Angola. There are distinct fish taxocenes in the Okavango which can be separated from each other by the physical characteristics of the different habitat types with which they co-evolved. An account is given of the ecology and conservation of the fishes of the Okavango Delta. Their response to the annual flood regime, and the environmental factors that limit their distribution and abundance, are described. In the northern riverine floodplain and perennial swamp a higher species richness and ichthyomass was recorded than in the seasonal swamp and drainage rivers. Suggestions are made on the conservation of Okavango fishes taking into account the ecological characteristics of the Delta.     

Environmental variability uncovers disruptive effects of species' interactions on population dynamics

How species respond to changes in environmental variability has been shown for single species, but the question remains whether these results are transferable to species when incorporated in ecological communities. Here, we address this issue by analysing the same species exposed to a range of environmental variabilities when (i) isolated or (ii) embedded in a food web. We find that all species in food webs exposed to temporally uncorrelated environments (white noise) show the same type of dynamics as isolated species, whereas species in food webs exposed to positively autocorrelated environments (red noise) can respond completely differently compared with isolated species. This is owing to species following their equilibrium densities in a positively autocorrelated environment that in turn enables species–species interactions to come into play. Our results give new insights into species'' response to environmental variation. They especially highlight the importance of considering both species'' interactions and environmental autocorrelation when studying population dynamics in a fluctuating environment.     

Nutrient Budget in the Seasonal Wetland of the Okavango Delta, Botswana

The nutrient (P and N species) and chloride budgets were investigated in a representative floodplain in the seasonal wetlands of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. A variety of sources of nutrients in the surface water were considered, namely ion species coming with the floodwater, those generated from dry floodplain soils and those from water-soluble dust deposition (both local and long-range sources). Concentrations of total-nitrogen and chloride in surface water were below 1 mg l⁻¹. Total-phosphorus concentrations were 0.05 mg l⁻¹, reflecting the oligotrophic character of the system. Dust deposition rates were highest for chloride at 2.44 g m⁻² year⁻¹ followed by 0.79 g m⁻² year⁻¹ for total-N, 0.40 g m⁻² year⁻¹ for ammonia and only 0.02 g m⁻² year⁻¹ for total-P, respectively. Chloride was derived primarily from long-range transport, while N and P species were of more local origin. Dissolution rates for these ions combined were calculated to be 3.9 g m⁻² for the flooded area in the 1999 season and thus all dry deposits must be re-dissolved. The accumulation of dust deposits on dry surfaces and their subsequent dissolution causes 2–5 times higher concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus and chloride with the onset of the flood, thus boosting the nutrient stock in the crucial phase of the onset of flooding. Chloride dissolved from dry soil surfaces and dust contributed approximately 40% to the overall floodplain budget. Although contributions from the soil surface and dust to the nitrogen and phosphorus pools of the floodplain are less prominent (with 10% of total), they nonetheless represent a significant source of nutrients in the entire system. Extrapolation to annually flooded swamps (10,000 km²) indicates a maximum contribution of 40% for total-nitrogen and 60% for total-phosphorus from dust deposition on wet or dry surfaces to the nutrient pool of the water body.     

Environmental variability and the evolution of the glucocorticoid receptor (Nr3c1) in African starlings

One of the primary ways that organisms cope with environmental change is through regulation of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, the neuroendocrine system that controls reactions to stress. Variation in genes regulating the HPA axis – particularly the glucocorticoid receptor – may facilitate adaptation to changing climatic conditions by altering expression. Here we examine signatures of selection on the glucocorticoid receptor gene (Nr3c1) in African starlings that inhabit a range of environments, including those with variable climatic conditions. To investigate potential adaptive mechanisms underlying the vertebrate stress response, we sequence the Nr3c1 gene in 27 species of African starlings. Although we find some evidence of positive selection, substitution rate is negatively correlated with variance in precipitation. This suggests climatic cycling in sub‐Saharan Africa may have resulted in lower substitution rates to maintain a successful coping strategy. When environmental conditions fluctuate rapidly, variation in the strength of purifying selection can explain evolutionary rate variation.     

Trapping,survival strategies,and environmental involvement: A case study from the Canadian sub-Arctic

In a sub-Arctic band of Hare Indians, considerable discrepancies have been found in the style, consistency, and degree of environmental involvement characterizing different individuals and families. The distinct subsistence patterns of subgroups within the population are explored. Ideological, psychological, historical, and experiential factors that contribute to this variability are examined. These factors are seen to affect strategies concerning trapping, hunting, mobility, wage labor, identity maintenance, and the quality of life that people seek. While some individuals pursue freedom from traditional subsistence hardships, others focus on self-sufficiency and freedom from constraints imposed by greater integration with Western society.     

Factors Affecting Reproduction and Mortality Among Baboons in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

We present results of a 10-year study of free-ranging gray-footed chacma baboons (Papio ursinus griseipes) in the Okavango Delta of Botswana. The majority of deaths among adult females and juveniles were due to predation, while infants were more likely to die of infanticide. There were strong seasonal effects on birth and mortality, with the majority of conceptions occurring during the period of highest rainfall. Mortality due to predation and infanticide was highest during the 3-mo period when flooding was at its peak, when the group was more scattered and constrained to move along predictable routes. The reproductive parameters most likely to be associated with superior competitive ability—interbirth interval and infant growth rates—conferred a slight fitness advantage on high-ranking females. However, it was counterbalanced by the effects of infanticide and predation. Infanticide affected high- and low-ranking females more than middle-ranking females, while predation affected females of all ranks relatively equally. As a result, there were few rank-related differences in estimated female lifetime reproductive success.     

Environmental variability counteracts priority effects to facilitate species coexistence: evidence from nectar microbes

The order of species arrival during community assembly can greatly affect species coexistence, but the strength of these effects, known as priority effects, appears highly variable across species and ecosystems. Furthermore, the causes of this variation remain unclear despite their fundamental importance in understanding species coexistence. Here, we show that one potential cause is environmental variability. In laboratory experiments using nectar-inhabiting microorganisms as a model system, we manipulated spatial and temporal variability of temperature, and examined consequences for priority effects. If species arrived sequentially, multiple species coexisted under variable temperature, but not under constant temperature. Temperature variability prevented extinction of late-arriving species that would have been excluded owing to priority effects if temperature had been constant. By contrast, if species arrived simultaneously, species coexisted under both variable and constant temperatures. We propose possible mechanisms underlying these results using a mathematical model that incorporates contrasting effects of microbial species on nectar pH and amino acids. Overall, our findings suggest that understanding consequences of priority effects for species coexistence requires explicit consideration of environmental variability.