活性氧参与一氧化氮诱导的神经细胞凋亡

采用激光共聚焦成像技术，用氧化还原敏感的特异性荧光探针(DCFH-DA和DHR123)直接研究了一氧化氮供体S-亚硝基-N-乙酰基青霉胺(SNAP)诱导未成熟大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡过程中的细胞胞浆、线粒体中活性氧水平的变化，发现神经细胞经0.5 mmol/L SNAP处理1 h后，细胞胞浆及线粒体中活性氧水平大大增加.一氧化氮清除剂血红蛋白能够有效抑制细胞胞浆、线粒体中活性氧的产生，防止细胞凋亡.外源性谷胱甘肽对细胞也具有良好的保护作用，而当细胞中谷胱甘肽的合成被抑制后，一氧化氮的神经毒性大大增强.实验结果表明一氧化氮通过促进神经细胞产生内源性活性氧而启动细胞凋亡程序，而谷胱甘肽可能是重要的防止一氧化氮引发神经损伤的内源性抗氧化剂.     

EPC—K1防止ONOO^—诱导的小脑颗粒神经元凋亡

荧光显微镜观察及ＥＬＩＳＡ分析表明１０μｍｏｌ／Ｌ过氧化亚硝基可诱导原代培养的大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡。应用ＥＳＲ自旋标记技术研究了这一过程中细胞膜生物物理特性的变化,结果表明神经细胞经过氧化亚硝基处理后,细胞膜表层及深层流动性均显著下降,膜蛋白巯基强弱固定化比值增加,维生素Ｃ、维生素Ｅ的衍生物Ｌ－抗坏血酸２－（３,４－二氢－２,５,７,８－四甲基－２－（４,８,１２－三甲基十三烷基）－２Ｈ－１－苯     

Peroxiredoxin V保护HT22小鼠海马神经细胞抵抗NO诱导的细胞凋亡

Peroxiredoxin V(Prx V)是过氧化物酶peroxiredoxins家族中的一员,在神经细胞中含量丰富,具有通过清除细胞内活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)和过氧亚硝酸盐抑制氧化应激诱导的细胞凋亡的作用。过量的一氧化氮(nitric oxide,NO)具有较强的神经毒性,可引起小胶质细胞炎性反应,诱导神经细胞凋亡从而引发神经退行性疾病,而且可诱导神经小胶质细胞Prx V的表达,参与小胶质细胞的活性调控过程。但是,NO诱导的海马神经细胞凋亡过程中Prx V的作用尚不清楚。该研究利用硝普化钠(sodium nitroprusside dihydrate,SNP)作为NO供体,检测了NO诱导的HT22小鼠海马神经细胞的凋亡及对Prx V蛋白表达的影响。结果显示,SNP诱导的HT22细胞凋亡呈现时间、浓度依赖性;并特异性地抑制了Prx V的表达,致使细胞内ROS水平升高,激活线粒体依赖的经典凋亡途径,导致HT22细胞的凋亡。该研究结果揭示,NO通过抑制细胞内Prx V的表达导致细胞内ROS水平升高,最终诱导HT22细胞发生凋亡的机制,为保护NO诱导的神经细胞凋亡提供了新的理论依据。     

活性氧水平决定白血病细胞对三氧化二砷诱导凋亡的敏感性

旨在探索三氧化二砷（As2O3)诱导白血病细胞株（NB4和U937）凋亡的敏感性与细胞活性氧（reactive oxy-gen species,ROS)水平的关系。以二甲萘醌（DMNQ）温育NB4和U937细胞,双氢罗丹明123（DHR）捕获ROS,流式细胞仪检测两种细胞ROS水平的差异。As2O3单独或联用DMNQ温育NB4和U937细胞,流式细胞仪及电镜检测凋亡并分析两种细胞凋亡敏感性的差异及其在用药前后的变化。结果显示,NB4的ROS水平明显高于U937,DMNQ可提高NB4和U937的ROS水平,诱发U937对As2O3的敏感性,增强As2O3促NB4细胞凋亡的效应,过氧化氢酶可逆转DMNQ的效应,结果提示,白血病细胞NB4和U937对As2O3促凋亡的敏感性决定于细胞固有的ROS水平。     

Genistein增加顺铂诱导的SKOV-3细胞的凋亡与活性氧的关系

目的:探讨Genistein增加顺铂诱导的耐药卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3凋亡的可能作用机制.方法:倒置相差显微镜下观察药物处理后细胞形态学的变化;MTT比色法检测不同药物处理后对SKOV-3细胞增殖的影响;流式细胞仪检测药物处理后细胞的凋亡情况;流式细胞仪和荧光显微镜检测细胞内活性氧(ROS)的水平.结果:10ug/ml的Genistein和2.5ug/ml的顺铂联用24h后,引起了细胞内ROS的增加,细胞的凋亡率也显著增高,与单用顺铂组相比差异有显著性(P＜0.05);用NAC预处理细胞2h后,有效抑制了ROS的产生,并增加了细胞的活性,降低了细胞的凋亡率,与未加NAC组相比差异有显著性(P＜0.05).结论:Genistein增加顺铂诱导的耐药卵巢癌细胞SKOV一3的凋亡与细胞内ROS水平的升高有关,这可能是Genistein增加顺铂诱导的耐药卵巢癌细胞SKOV-3凋亡的作用机制之一.     

亚硒酸钠诱导SW480细胞凋亡过程中活性氧的作用

为探讨亚硒酸钠诱导人结肠癌SW480细胞凋亡的机理,将荧光探针2′,7′－二氯荧光黄乙二脂（2′,7′－DCFH－DA）、罗丹明123（rhodamine123）负载人结肠癌细胞,利用多光子成像系统测定胞内活性氧（ROS）、线粒体跨膜电位（△Ψm）的变化。结果发现（1）Na2SeO3作用SW480细胞,可导致细胞凋亡和胞内的ROS增加。SOD、过氧化氢酶可降低凋亡率并抑制ROS的增加。（2）线粒体电子传递链抑制剂鲁藤酮及氰化钠可抑制OS增加。（3）Na2SeO3可导致线粒体的跨膜电位的下降。表明Na2SeO3作用细胞可导致来源于线粒体的ROS增加,ROS介导亚硒酸钠诱导细胞凋亡。     

LINGO-1-Fc蛋白对低钾诱导小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的保护作用

髓鞘抑制因子Nogo-A、MAG和OMgp通过共同的受体信号复合物NgR/p75NTR(或者TROY)发挥对中枢神经纤维再生的抑制作用.新近克隆的跨膜蛋白LINGO-1是该信号途径的另一个重要组成成分和调节分子.LINGO-1特异表达于中枢神经系统,神经元上的LINGO-1被证明参与调节中枢神经再生的抑制信号,而少突胶质细胞表达的LINGO-1分子参与负调节少突胶质细胞的髓鞘化过程.为探讨LINGO-1分子在神经元凋亡过程中的作用,利用包含LINGO-1分子胞外段LRR和IgC2结构域的Fc融合蛋白作为功能性拮抗剂,研究LINGO-1对低钾诱导的小脑颗粒神经元凋亡的保护作用.利用成熟的Hoechst标记凋亡细胞的方法,观察到经LINGO-1-Fc蛋白预处理2h能够显著阻止小脑颗粒神经元的凋亡.仅包括LRR结构域的GST-LINGO-1与LINGO-1-Fc蛋白,虽同样具有与颗粒神经元的结合活性,但是GST-LINGO-1不能有效地阻止低钾诱导的细胞凋亡.这些结果提示,LINGO-1-Fc蛋白能够阻止低钾诱导的小脑颗粒神经元凋亡,并且这种作用可能是IgC2结构域依赖的.     

活性氧诱导线粒体损伤导致晶体上皮细胞凋亡

目的探讨线粒体损伤在活性氧诱导晶体上皮细胞凋亡中的作用。方法以过氧化氢为处理因素,MTT方法测定过氧化氢对晶体上皮细胞的半数致死浓度(IC50),使用确定的IC50处理培养的人晶体上皮细胞,琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测DNA片段化降解,流式细胞术检测细胞线粒体跨膜电位(Δψm)变化、透射电镜观察细胞线粒体形态,定量免疫印迹检测胞质溶胶中细胞色素c含量的变化及caspase-3的活化。结果过氧化氢对晶体上皮细胞的IC50是32.24μmol/L。32.24μmol/L的过氧化氢处理12h可以检测到晶体上皮细胞染色体DNA发生片段化降解;6h可以检测到线粒体跨膜电位去极化,且随时间延长逐渐加强;18h透射电镜观察可见明显的线粒体膜损伤。定量免疫印迹分析显示细胞色素c在胞质溶胶中的表达逐渐提高及caspase-3活化加强。结论活性氧可能是通过诱导线粒体结构和功能损伤导致晶体上皮细胞凋亡。     

线粒体，活性氧和细胞凋亡

在能量代谢和自由基代谢中,线粒体均占据着十分重要的地位.通过呼吸链电子漏途径,线粒体产生大量超氧阴离子,并通过链式反应形成对机体有损伤作用的活性氧.通过呼吸链电子漏,氧化磷酸化解偶联,线粒体内膜产生通透性转变孔道（PTP）及Box-和/或PTP-介导的细胞色素c向胞质的转移等种种因素,线粒体参与一般抗氧化防御及细胞凋亡等重要生理过程的调控.在与线粒体相关的细胞凋亡中,活性氧的信号作用是十分明显的.     

热应激抑制神经元凋亡与核因子kappaB活性之间的关系

实验采用低钾诱导大鼠小脑颗粒神经元凋亡模型,观察核因子kappaB(NF-kappaB)活性与热应激抑制神经元凋亡之间的关系,迁移率改变法（EMSA）检测结果显示：神经元经低钾处理16h可见NF－kappaB活性明显升高,热应激处理可减弱低钾诱发的NF－kappaB激活,并呈时间依赖性,Hoechst33258荧光素核染色,DNA琼脂糖凝胶电泳和流式细胞（FCM）检测均发现低钾16h可诱发神经元凋亡,预先用热处理60或90min可明显减弱低钾诱发的神经元凋亡,用佛波酯（PMA）激活NF－kappaB,可进一步增强60min热应激抑制精经元凋亡的作用,而用吡咯烷二硫代氨基甲酸盐（PDTC）选择性阻断NF－kappaB活性后,热应激抑制神经元凋亡的作用明显减弱。上述结果提示,热应激的神经保护作用与减弱NF－kappaB活性无关,而NF－ksppaB激活可能参与热应激抑制神经元凋亡的作用。     

Induction of Reactive Oxygen Species in Neurons by Haloperidol

Abstract: Haloperidol (HP) is widely prescribed for schizophrenia and other affective disorders but has severe side effects such as tardive dyskinesia. Because oxidative stress has been implicated in the clinical side effects of HP, rat primary cortical neurons and the mouse hippocampal cell line HT-22 were used to characterize the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other cellular alterations caused by HP. Primary neurons and HT-22 cells are equally sensitive to HP with an IC₅₀ of 35 µ M in the primary neurons and 45 µ M in HT-22. HP induces a sixfold increase in levels of ROS, which are generated from mitochondria but not from the metabolism of catecholamines by monoamine oxidases. Glutathione (GSH) is an important antioxidant for the protection of cells against HP toxicity because (1) the intracellular GSH decreases as the ROS production increases, (2) the exogenous addition of antioxidants, such as β-estradiol and vitamin E, lowers the level of ROS and protects diol and vitamin E, lowers the level of ROS and protects HT-22 cells from HP, and (3) treatments that result in the reduction of the intracellular GSH potentiate HP toxicity. The GSH decrease is followed by the increase in the intracellular level of Ca²⁺, which immediately precedes cell death. Therefore, HP causes a sequence of cellular alterations that lead to cell death and the production of ROS is the integral part of this cascade.     

Singlet Oxygen and Other Reactive Oxygen Species are Involved in Regulation of Release of Iron-Binding Chelators from Scenedesmus cells

Freshly-added iron only slightly affected the growth of iron-sufficient cells of the green alga Scenedesmus incrassatulus Bohl, strain R-83, but induced accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) in cells and excretion of MDA in the medium. These effects were stronger in response to Fe²⁺ as compared to Fe³⁺, but Fe³⁺ induced the release of more iron-binding chelators from these cells than Fe²⁺. Fe³⁺ added either in dark or in light induced release of equal concentrations of iron-complexing agents, part of which formed strong chelates with iron in the medium. Exogenously added hydrogen peroxide inhibited iron-induced release of chelators but the effect was removed by addition of the hydroxyl radical scavenger dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Malondialdehyde also inhibited the release of chelators. Release of chelators was induced in the absence of iron salts by photoexcited chlorophyll (Chl). The Chl-induced release was efficiently inhibited by singlet oxygen scavengers such as dimethylfuran, -carotene, sodium azide and vitamin B₆, and stimulated in D₂O or DMSO. Exogenously added catalase inhibited the release more than added superoxide dismutase. The Fe³-induced release of chelators was also inhibited by scavengers of singlet oxygen, but was not affected by sodium azide and by ethanol. Hence both H₂O₂ and singlet oxygen were involved in induction of chelator release in the absence of iron in light. The induction of chelator release by iron in dark involved H₂O₂, but not singlet oxygen.     

Singlet Oxygen Is the Major Reactive Oxygen Species Involved in Photooxidative Damage to Plants

Reactive oxygen species act as signaling molecules but can also directly provoke cellular damage by rapidly oxidizing cellular components, including lipids. We developed a high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry-based quantitative method that allowed us to discriminate between free radical (type I)- and singlet oxygen (¹O₂; type II)-mediated lipid peroxidation (LPO) signatures by using hydroxy fatty acids as specific reporters. Using this method, we observed that in nonphotosynthesizing Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) tissues, nonenzymatic LPO was almost exclusively catalyzed by free radicals both under normal and oxidative stress conditions. However, in leaf tissues under optimal growth conditions, ¹O₂ was responsible for more than 80% of the nonenzymatic LPO. In Arabidopsis mutants favoring ¹O₂ production, photooxidative stress led to a dramatic increase of ¹O₂ (type II) LPO that preceded cell death. Furthermore, under all conditions and in mutants that favor the production of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide (two sources for type I LPO reactions), plant cell death was nevertheless always preceded by an increase in ¹O₂-dependent (type II) LPO. Thus, besides triggering a genetic cell death program, as demonstrated previously with the Arabidopsis fluorescent mutant, ¹O₂ plays a major destructive role during the execution of reactive oxygen species-induced cell death in leaf tissues.Plant leaves capture sun-derived light energy to drive CO₂ fixation during photosynthesis. During this process, leaves need to cope with photooxidative stress when the balance between energy absorption and consumption is disturbed. Excess excitation energy in the photosystems (PSI and PSII) leads to the inhibition of photosynthesis via the production of various reactive oxygen species (ROS) at different spatial levels of the cell (Apel and Hirt, 2004; Asada, 2006; Van Breusegem and Dat, 2006). Both exposure to high light intensities and decreased CO₂ availability direct linear electron transfer toward the reduction of molecular oxygen, generating superoxide radicals (O₂^−.) at PSI (the Mehler reaction). Superoxide dismutation generates hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which is detoxified in the chloroplast by ascorbate peroxidases. As such, this so-called water-water cycle participates in the dissipation of excess energy (Asada, 2006). Decreased CO₂ availability affects the first step in CO₂ fixation by shifting the carboxylation of Rubisco by the Rubisco carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme toward oxygenation, a process called photorespiration. This leads, through the action of glycolate oxidase, to peroxisomal H₂O₂ production that is counteracted by catalases. Finally, when the intersystem electron carriers are overreduced, triplet excited P680 in the PSII reaction center as well as triplet chlorophylls in the light-harvesting antennae are produced, with the production of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) as a consequence (Krieger-Liszkay, 2005). In photosynthetic membranes, ¹O₂ is quenched by carotenoids and tocopherols. When antioxidant mechanisms are overwhelmed, increased cellular ROS levels trigger signal transduction events related to stress signaling and programmed cell death (Mittler et al., 2004; Van Breusegem and Dat, 2006). On the other hand, excessive ROS accumulation damages pigments, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007), thereby contributing to or executing cell death.Since under environmental stress conditions different ROS are produced simultaneously, a causal link between the accumulation of a specific ROS and its signaling or damaging effects has always been difficult to establish. In recent years, the production of various transgenic Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants with compromised levels of specific antioxidant enzymes and the identification of the conditional fluorescent (flu) mutant provided important tools to assess the specific effects of O₂^−., H₂O₂, and ¹O₂ within a particular subcellular compartment (Dat et al., 2003; op den Camp et al., 2003; Pnueli et al., 2003; Rizhsky et al. 2003; Vandenabeele et al., 2004; Wagner et al., 2004; Queval et al., 2007). For example, with catalase-deficient [Cat(−)] plants, the signaling effects of increased photorespiratory H₂O₂ levels could be identified (Dat et al., 2003; Vandenabeele et al., 2004; Queval et al., 2007). Similarly, in the conditional flu mutant increased plastid ¹O₂ levels were shown to induce a genetic program leading to cell death (op den Camp et al., 2003; Wagner et al., 2004). Nevertheless, whereas careful monitoring of gene expression on the whole-genome level enables to pinpoint specific signaling capacities for diverse ROS (Mittler et al., 2004; Gadjev et al., 2006), it remained impossible to discriminate between the oxidative damaging effects on cellular components of different ROS.One consequence of ROS formation is lipid peroxidation (LPO; Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007). Two nonenzymatic reaction types lead to specific patterns of oxidized membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; Stratton and Liebler, 1997; Montillet et al., 2004; Mueller et al., 2006). Type I reactions are initiated by free radicals (FRs) having high redox potential, such as hydroxyl radicals (^.OH) or organic oxyl and peroxyl radicals, and type II reactions are the result of ¹O₂ action. Notably, O₂^−. and H₂O₂ are not sufficiently reactive to oxidize any PUFA. However, both ROS can be nonenzymatically converted to ^.OH through Fenton-type reactions in the presence of transition metal ions such as Fe²⁺ (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007). Both type I and type II reactions lead to the formation of respective oxygenated fatty acids. Here, we propose a novel and quantitative approach to distinguish between FR- and ¹O₂-mediated LPO in plants by quantifying type II oxidation-specific hydroxy fatty acids with HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), allowing us to monitor the relative contribution of LPO caused by PSI-dependent O₂^−./H₂O₂, photorespiratory H₂O₂, and photosynthetic ¹O₂ during photooxidative stress and cell death. We demonstrate that nonenzymatic LPO in leaves is almost exclusively mediated by ¹O₂ and that photooxidative stress-dependent cell death involves ¹O₂ production in its final stage.     

Identification of Possible Reactive Oxygen Species Involved in Ultraviolet Radiation-Induced Oxidative DNA Damage

We have previously demonstrated that each region of the ultraviolet (UV) spectrum (UVA, UVB, and UVC) induces the formation of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodGuo) in purified calf thymus DNA and HeLa cells in a fluence-dependent manner. In the present study, we further characterize the possible reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are involved in the induction of 8-oxodGuo by UV radiation. Sodium azide, a singlet oxygen (¹O₂) scavenger though its quenching effect on HO· was also reported, inhibited 8-oxodGuo production in calf thymus DNA exposed to UVA, UVB, or UVC in a concentration-dependent fashion with maximal quenching effect of over 90% at a concentration of 10 mM. Catalase, at a concentration of 50 U/ml, reduced the yields of UVA- and UVB-induced 8-oxodGuo formation by approximately 50%, but had little effect on UVC-induced 8-oxodGuo production. In contrast, 50 U/ml of superoxide dismutase (SOD) did not affect induction of 8-oxodGuo by any portion of the UV spectrum. Hydroxyl radical (HO·) scavengers mannitol and dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) moderately reduced the levels of 8-oxodGuo induced by UVA and UVB, but not those by UVC. Instead, mannitol and DMSO enhanced the formation of 8-oxodGuo induced by UVC. These results suggest that certain types of ROS are involved in UV-induced 8-oxodGuo formation with ¹O₂ playing the predominant role throughout the UV spectrum. Except for UVC, other ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and HO· may also be involved in UVA- and UVB-induced oxidative DNA damage. Superoxide anion appears not to participate in UV-induced oxidation of guanosine in calf thymus DNA, as SOD did not display any quenching effects.     

Oleoyl-Lysophosphatidylcholine Limits Endothelial Nitric Oxide Bioavailability by Induction of Reactive Oxygen Species

Previously we reported modulation of endothelial prostacyclin and interleukin-8 production, cyclooxygenase-2 expression and vasorelaxation by oleoyl- lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC 18:1). In the present study, we examined the impact of this LPC on nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability in vascular endothelial EA.hy926 cells. Basal NO formation in these cells was decreased by LPC 18:1. This was accompanied with a partial disruption of the active endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS)- dimer, leading to eNOS uncoupling and increased formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The LPC 18:1-induced ROS formation was attenuated by the superoxide scavenger Tiron, as well as by the pharmacological inhibitors of eNOS, NADPH oxidases, flavin-containing enzymes and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Intracellular ROS-formation was most prominent in mitochondria, less pronounced in cytosol and undetectable in endoplasmic reticulum. Importantly, Tiron completely prevented the LPC 18:1-induced decrease in NO bioavailability in EA.hy926 cells. The importance of the discovered findings for more in vivo like situations was analyzed by organ bath experiments in mouse aortic rings. LPC 18:1 attenuated the acetylcholine-induced, endothelium dependent vasorelaxation and massively decreased NO bioavailability. We conclude that LPC 18:1 induces eNOS uncoupling and unspecific superoxide production. This results in NO scavenging by ROS, a limited endothelial NO bioavailability and impaired vascular function.     

Determination of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Reactive Oxygen Species in Live Rat Cortical Neurons

Mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) is critical for maintaining the physiological function of the respiratory chain to generate ATP. A significant loss of ΔΨm renders cells depleted of energy with subsequent death. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important signaling molecules, but their accumulation in pathological conditions leads to oxidative stress. The two major sources of ROS in cells are environmental toxins and the process of oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress have been implicated in the pathophysiology of many diseases; therefore, the ability to determine ΔΨm and ROS can provide important clues about the physiological status of the cell and the function of the mitochondria. Several fluorescent probes (Rhodamine 123, TMRM, TMRE, JC-1) can be used to determine Δψm in a variety of cell types, and many fluorescence indicators (Dihydroethidium, Dihydrorhodamine 123, H₂DCF-DA) can be used to determine ROS. Nearly all of the available fluorescence probes used to assess ΔΨm or ROS are single-wavelength indicators, which increase or decrease their fluorescence intensity proportional to a stimulus that increases or decreases the levels of ΔΨm or ROS. Thus, it is imperative to measure the fluorescence intensity of these probes at the baseline level and after the application of a specific stimulus. This allows one to determine the percentage of change in fluorescence intensity between the baseline level and a stimulus. This change in fluorescence intensity reflects the change in relative levels of ΔΨm or ROS. In this video, we demonstrate how to apply the fluorescence indicator, TMRM, in rat cortical neurons to determine the percentage change in TMRM fluorescence intensity between the baseline level and after applying FCCP, a mitochondrial uncoupler. The lower levels of TMRM fluorescence resulting from FCCP treatment reflect the depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential. We also show how to apply the fluorescence probe H₂DCF-DA to assess the level of ROS in cortical neurons, first at baseline and then after application of H₂O₂. This protocol (with minor modifications) can be also used to determine changes in ∆Ψm and ROS in different cell types and in neurons isolated from other brain regions.