The Subak in Diaspora: Balinese Farmers and the Subak in South Sulawesi

The subak has a long history as an irrigators’ institution on Bali. It has also spread across Indonesia along with Balinese farmers who were resettled by colonial and post-colonial governments or who have migrated spontaneously since colonial times. While subaks have been much researched in Bali itself, little is known about subaks outside Bali. Luwu District in South Sulawesi is one of the areas where thousands of Balinese families settled in the last four decades. Based on research in this transmigration area, this paper analyzes the emergence and development of the subak in relation to the development of irrigation infrastructure of a state-built irrigation system. A comparison between two Balinese settlements in the same system shows that differences in infrastructural and managerial conditions and arrangements between parts of the irrigation system were major determinants of the institutional space allowed for the subak and ways in which the subaks developed.     

Balinese "Water Temples" and the Management of Irrigation

Bali has figured prominently in debates on the question of whether irrigation centralizes state power. New evidence shows that irrigation is actually organized by networks of "water temples" that constitute an institutional system separate from the state. Earlier attempts to identify a discrete system of irrigation management misconceived the problem. For most crops, irrigation simply provides water for the plant's roots. But in a Balinese rice terrace, water is used to construct a complex, pulsed artificial ecosystem. Water temples manipulate the states of the system, at ascending levels in regional hierarchies. The permanence of water temple networks contrasts sharply with the instability of the traditional Balinese states. Since the water temples are real, perhaps it is the Balinese "state" that is chimerical.     

Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temple Networks: Coadaptation on a Rugged Fitness Landscape

For over a thousand years, generations of Balinese farmers have gradually transformed the landscape of their island, clearing forests, digging irrigation canals, and terracing hillsides to enable themselves and their descendants to grow irrigated rice. Paralleling the physical system of terraces and irrigation works, the Balinese have also constructed intricate networks of shrines and temples dedicated to agricultural deities. Ecological modeling shows that water temple networks can have macroscopic effects on the topography of the adaptive landscape, and may be representative of a class of complex adaptive systems that have evolved to manage agroecosystems.     

TEMPLE AND KING: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, RITUALS AND REDISTRIBUTION IN EARLY BALI

This article discusses the intricate relationship between economics, temples, rituals, and king and kingship in early Bali. So far the anthropological representation of the organization of the pre-colonial or early colonial Balinese state and society has oscillated between the 'theatre state' in which 'power served pomp' and the alleged disjunction of the state from an economy based for the most part on irrigated agriculture (rice). This article suggests that regional lords as well as kings had a substantial share in the economy as well as in the ritual organization of irrigation agriculture. This involvement functioned on both the local or regional level, with its corresponding irrigation associations ( subak ) and their rituals, and on the transregional level, with its major temples – which also acted as redistribution centres – and their authorities.     

Outside Points of View in the Construction of Balinese Ethnicity and Religion

The ‘outside points of view’ of Muslims, Indian Hindus, tourists and other non‐Balinese towards Balinese culture and religion are often invoked by Balinese religious leaders and urban intelligentsia. This has been described in the literature as ‘defensiveness’ related to the process of gaining state acceptance for Balinese religion as Hinduism. I argue for a more subtle reading of the importance of assumed outside points of view to transformations of Balinese practices and to the construction of Balinese identities, by analysing examples from fieldwork (2001–2003) and from Balinese media relating to current debates over cockfighting, the Balinese language, and Balinese religion. One must differentiate the importance of outside points of view to differently positioned Balinese, determine what specific practices are called into question by such assumed points of view, and clearly distinguish between the flow of cultural categories and concepts in a globalised world and the phenomenon of perceived interactions between religions and cultures. Furthermore, a wider cross‐cultural perspective reveals the limitations of understanding these processes as uniquely postcolonial or postmodern.     

Bazar,Big Kites and Other Boys' Things: Distinctions of Gender and Tradition in Balinese Youth Culture

Balinese society is undergoing rapid change, but remains discursively situated in a ‘timeless’ ethos of cultural tradition. This tension can be observed in relation to the cultural activities of the island's young people, particularly the young men. The staging of bazar (neighbourhood fundraising parties), the making of ogoh‐ogoh (giant papier‐mâché effigies to mark Nyepi, the Balinese New Year) and the competitive flying of oversize kites are–despite their sometimes contentious reception from older generations—popularly dubbed as ‘traditional’ expressions of Balinese youth culture. This recourse to tradition must be viewed in relation to two pervasive discourses: that of adat (customary law) and ajeg (a new protectionist ethos in the discourse on Balinese cultural identity). This paper argues that in contemporary urban Bali, male youth culture finds its most visible expressions in relation to the abiding standards of established public ritual and the equally abiding gender divisions that serve to guarantee the reproduction of ‘traditional’ social life. Rather than fighting aggressively against the grown‐up norm, these expressions replicate the public culture of the adult world—while drawing on global and national youth styles—and strive towards the expression of a specifically ‘Balinese’ youth culture.     

Balinese Y-chromosome perspective on the peopling of Indonesia: genetic contributions from pre-neolithic hunter-gatherers, Austronesian farmers, and Indian traders

The island of Bali lies near the center of the southern chain of islands in the Indonesian archipelago, which served as a stepping-stone for early migrations of hunter-gatherers to Melanesia and Australia and for more recent migrations of Austronesian farmers from mainland Southeast Asia to the Pacific. Bali is the only Indonesian island with a population that currently practices the Hindu religion and preserves various other Indian cultural, linguistic, and artistic traditions (Lansing 1983). Here, we examine genetic variation on the Y chromosomes of 551 Balinese men to investigate the relative contributions of Austronesian farmers and pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers to the contemporary Balinese paternal gene pool and to test the hypothesis of recent paternal gene flow from the Indian subcontinent. Seventy-one Y-chromosome binary polymorphisms (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) and 10 Y-chromosome-linked short tandem repeats (STRs) were genotyped on a sample of 1,989 Y chromosomes from 20 populations representing Indonesia (including Bali), southern China, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Near East, and Oceania. SNP genotyping revealed 22 Balinese lineages, 3 of which (O-M95, O-M119, and O-M122) account for nearly 83.7% of Balinese Y chromosomes. Phylogeographic analyses suggest that all three major Y-chromosome haplogroups migrated to Bali with the arrival of Austronesian speakers; however, STR diversity patterns associated with these haplogroups are complex and may be explained by multiple waves of Austronesian expansion to Indonesia by different routes. Approximately 2.2% of contemporary Balinese Y chromosomes (i.e., K-M9*, K-M230, and M lineages) may represent the pre-Neolithic component of the Indonesian paternal gene pool. In contrast, eight other haplogroups (e.g., within H, J, L, and R), making up approximately 12% of the Balinese paternal gene pool, appear to have migrated to Bali from India. These results indicate that the Austronesian expansion had a profound effect on the composition of the Balinese paternal gene pool and that cultural transmission from India to Bali was accompanied by substantial levels of gene flow.     

The wet and the dry: Traditional irrigation in Bali and Morocco

The comparative perspective is of central importance to effective analysis in human ecology. The present paper compares traditional irrigation systems in two quite disparate settings: east central Morocco and southeastern Bali. Bali, which has a tropical climate and a plentiful water supply, displays a highly collective approach to the organization of irrigation facilities. Morocco, which is essentially an arid country, displays, on the contrary, a much more individual, property-based approach to water regulation. The internal organization of these two regimes is described and their connection with more general cultural and ecological factors is traced, in an attempt to demonstrate that patterns of adaptation are susceptible to the same pattern of analysis as other aspects of social and cultural life. The contrast between the strongly group-oriented Balinese approach to water control and distribution and the highly individualistic Moroccan one is said to extend in an overall way to the two societies as a whole.Supported by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge (Indonesian study) and by the National Institute of Mental Health (Moroccan study).     

Effects of fertigation scheme on N uptake and N use efficiency in cotton

While fertigation can increase fertilizer use efficiency, there is an uncertainly as to whether the fertilizer should be introduced at the beginning of the irrigation or at the end, or introduced during irrigation. Our objective was to determine the effect of different fertigation schemes on nitrogen (N) uptake and N use efficiency (NUE) in cotton plants. A pot experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions in year 2004 and 2005. According to the application timing of nitrogen (N) fertilizer solution and water (W) involved in an irrigation cycle, four nitrogen fertigation schemes [nitrogen applied at the beginning of the irrigation cycle (N–W), nitrogen applied at the end of the irrigation cycle (W–N), nitrogen applied in the middle of the irrigation cycle (W–N–W) and nitrogen applied throughout the irrigation cycle (N&W)] were employed in a completely randomized design with four replications. Cotton was grown in plastic containers with a volume of 84 l, which were filled with a clay loam soil and fertilized with 6.4 g of N per pot as unlabeled and ¹⁵N-labeled urea for 2004 and 2005, respectively. Plant total dry matter (DM) and N content in N–W was significantly higher than in N&W in both seasons, but these were not consistent for W–N and W–N–W treatments. In year 2005, a significantly higher nitrogen derived from fertilizer (NDFF) for the whole plant was found in W–N and N–W than that in W–N–W and N&W. Fertigation scheme had a consistent effect on total NUE: N–W had the highest NUE for the whole plant, but this was not significantly different from W–N. Treatments W–N and W–N–W had similar total NUE, and N&W had the lowest total NUE. After harvesting, the total residual fertilizer N in the soil was highest in W–N, lowest in N–W, but this was not significantly different from N&W and W–N–W treatments. Total residual NO₃–N in the soil in N&W and W–N treatments was 20.7 and 21.2% higher than that in N–W, respectively. The total ¹⁵N recovery was not statistically significant between the four fertigation schemes. In this study, the fertigation scheme N–W (nitrogen applied at the beginning of an irrigation cycle) increased DM accumulation, N uptake and NUE of cotton. This study indicates that Nitrogen application at the beginning of an irrigation cycle has an advantage on N uptake and NUE of cotton. Therefore, NUE could be enhanced by optimizing fertilization schemes with drip irrigation.     

气候变化背景下松嫩平原玉米灌溉需水量估算及预测

开展农作物需水规律研究对于干旱半干旱区域旱作物节水灌溉和水分管理实践具有重要意义。以松嫩平原玉米为研究对象,研究玉米生育期需水量规律及灌溉需水量。结果表明:(1)历史时期和未来气候变化情景下,松嫩平原玉米全生育期和L~(mid)时段灌溉需水量等值线沿西南—东北方向递减,其中全生育期和L~(mid)时段2000s灌溉需水量临界等势线(灌溉需水量为0的等势线)分别比1970s北移70.2km和53.4km,全生育期和L~(mid)时段2040s灌溉需水量临界等势线分别比2010s北移30.9km和55.2km。(2)历史时期和气候变化情景下玉米全生育期灌溉需水量随年代呈波动增加趋势,其中前者以29.1mm/(10a)速度增加,后者以17.5mm/(10a)速度增加。(3)未来温度和降雨量变化对玉米需水量的贡献率为波动上升趋势,与1970s相比,2000s温度和降雨量变化对玉米需水量的贡献率为22.1%,增加6.8亿m~3灌溉水量;2040s温度和降雨量变化对玉米需水量的贡献率为38.3%,增加12.6亿m~3灌溉水量。     

The effect of modern Balinese Baris dancing exercise (MBBDE) on serum lipid profiles.

There is still a lack of information on the effect of regular dancing exercise on lipid profiles. On the other hand, many studies have been carried out on the effect of aerobic exercise on lipid profiles. This study tried to find out the effects of Modern Balinese Baris Dancing Exercise (MBBDE) on serum lipid profiles. Subjects of the study were 30 healthy young male Balinese as an experimental group, and another 30 healthy young Balinese as control group. The MBBDE involved exercise intensity at 70-80% of targeted heart rate, for 50 min period, 3 times per week for 8 weeks. Pre- and post-control group design was applied. Total cholesterol and triglyceride were measured enzymatically. Following MBBDE 3 x 50 min/week for 8 weeks duration, serum level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration increased significantly from 55.3 +/- 2.32 mg/dl to 63.2 +/- 2.82 mg/dl (p < 0.001). It was also associated with the decrease of total cholesterol concentration from 195.5 +/- 21.10 mg/dl to 161.8 +/- 21.29 mg/dl (p < 0.001); triglyceride concentration from 132.2 +/- 9.65 mg/dl to 110.6 +/- 9.08 mg/dl (p < 0.001); and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentration from 113.8 +/- 21.68 mg/dl to 76.9 +/- 20.76 mg/dl (p < 0.001). No significant differences were found in the above parameters in the control group. It is concluded that MBBDE is an aerobic, endurance exercise, and therefore produces beneficial effect on the serum lipid profiles.     

Water Conflicts among Different User Groups in South Bali,Indonesia

The overexploitation of water resources in the region of South Bali, near one of the island’s tourist centres, is exemplified by a subak in Sanur at the tail end of an irrigation system. Tensions between the social institutions for local water management and powerful, state-backed stakeholders in water distribution from the river Ayung have caused rural–urban water conflicts for the last 10–15 years. The case presented here illustrates how water shortages are ascribed to the dominance of the tourism industry, private companies selling bottled drinking water and regional water delivery services, all of which peasants hold responsible for crop failure in dry years. I focus on the emic perspective of the subak members on water scarcity caused by a lack of coordination between privatized and previously centralized water resource management based on economic priorities for the tourism sector and urban regions and water use for agriculture.     

Do tree-ring traits reflect different water deficit responses in young poplar clones (Populus × canadensis Mönch ‘I-214’ and P. deltoides ‘Dvina’)?

Poplar clones are known to display a wide range of tolerance to drought and water-use efficiency, but the effects of water deficit on stem growth and tree-ring characteristics are rarely taken into account. This study was conducted in order to investigate whether the main tree-ring traits correlate with irrigation regimes during the growing season in ‘I-214’ and ‘Dvina’ 4-year-old poplar clone saplings grown in concrete tanks, during three consecutive years. Total carbon, stable carbon isotope, Klason lignin and α-cellulose contents were analyzed to characterize wood biochemistry; ring width, wood density, mean vessel density and mean vessel lumen area were analyzed to characterize wood anatomy to assess the influence of irrigation regime. In both clones, wood formed in 2005 was more enriched in ¹³C, suggesting drought-induced stomatal closure. Wood formed in 2006 was less variable in δ¹³C in relation to irrigation regimes. ‘Dvina’ showed higher Klason lignin content and wood density than ‘I-214’, whatever the irrigation regime, despite the larger ring widths. ‘Dvina’ has the potential to recover promptly after drought stress, but at the expense of poor wood technological properties, while ‘I-214’ could continue to grow more uniformly under limited water availability, though at a lower rate.     

Root distribution and water uptake patterns of corn under surface and subsurface drip irrigation

Information on root distribution and uptake patterns is useful to better understand crop responses to irrigation and fertigation, especially with the limited wetted soil volumes which develop under drip irrigation. Plant water uptake patterns play an important role in the success of drip irrigation system design and management. Here the root systems of corn were characterized by their length density (RLD) and root water uptake (RWU). Comparisons were made between the spatial patterns of corn RWU and RLD under surface and subsurface drip irrigation in a silt loam soil, considering a drip line on a crop row and between crop rows. Water uptake distribution was measured with an array of TDR probes at high spatial and temporal resolution. Root length density was measured by sampling soil cores on a grid centered on crop row. Roots were separated and an estimation of root geometrical attributes was made using two different image analysis programs. Comparisons of these programs yielded nearly identical estimates of RLD. The spatial patterns of RWU and RLD distributions, respectively normalized to the total uptake and root length, were generally similar only for drip line on a crop row, but with some local variations between the two measures. Both RLD and RWU were adequately fitted with parametric models based on semi-lognormal and normal Gaussian bivariate density functions (Coelho and Or, 1996; Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60, 1039–1049).     

Water relations and gas exchange in olive trees under regulated deficit irrigation and partial rootzone drying

It is widely believed that partial root drying (PRD) reduces water losses by transpiration without affecting yield. However, experimental work carried out to date does not always support this hypothesis. In many cases a PRD treatment has been compared to a full irrigated treatment, so doubt remains on whether the observed benefits correspond to the switching of irrigation or just to PRD being a deficit irrigation treatment. In addition, not always a PRD treatment has been found advantageous as compared to a companion regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) treatment. In this work we have compared the response of mature ‘Manzanilla‘ olive trees to a PRD and an RDI treatment in which about 50% of the crop evapotranspiration (ET_c) was supplied daily by localised irrigation. We alternated irrigation in the PRD treatment every 2 weeks in 2003 and every 3 weeks in 2004. Measurements of stem water potential (Ψ_stem), stomatal conductance (g _s) and net CO₂ assimilation rate (A) were made in trees of both treatments, as well as in trees irrigated to 100% of ET_c (Control trees) and in Rain-fed trees. Sap flow was also measured in different conductive organs of trees under both PRD and RDI treatments, to evaluate the influence of alternating irrigation on root water uptake and tree water consumption. We found small and random differences in Ψ_stem, g _s and A, which gave no evidence of PRD causing a positive effect on the olive tree performance, as compared to RDI. Stomatal conductance decreased in PRD trees as compared to Control trees, but a similar decrease in g _s was also recorded in the RDI trees. Sap flow measurements, which reflected water use throughout the irrigation period, also showed no evidence of g _s being more reduced in PRD than in RDI trees. Daily water consumption was also similar in the trees of the deficit irrigation treatments, for most days, throughout the irrigation period. Alternating irrigation in PRD trees did not cause a change in either water taken up by main roots at each side of the trees, or in the sap flow of both trunk locations and main branches of each side. Results from this work, and from previous work conducted in this orchard, suggest that transpiration is restricted in trees under deficit irrigation, in which roots are left in drying soil when water is applied by localised irrigation, and that there is no need to alternate irrigation for achieving this effect. Section Editor: R. E. Munns     

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali,Indonesia

Ethnobotanical Study of Traditional Building Materials from the Island of Bali, Indonesia. Local knowledge of plant-based building materials has long been part of Balinese tradition. In order to better understand this particular tradition, we carried out a comprehensive ethnobotanical study of 13 aga villages. The data were obtained through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. Seventy-eight species of plants were identified, comprising 63 genera and 34 families, of which 46% are native to the Flora Malesiana floristic region, 20% to the Indian floristic region, and 17% to the Indochinese floristic region. Ninety-one percent were trees. The most frequently used part was the stem (88%). The main use categories reported for building materials were houses (58%), religious uses (Balinese Hindu temple; 35%), stables (5%), and barns (2%). Thirty-eight percent appeared in more than one use category. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. and Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre were the two species that possessed the highest values in the preference ranking for use value (UV) followed by Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Species richness differed substantially between villages according to their different levels of traditional knowledge preservation. Despite the impact of the fast-growing tourist industry and the decline of local knowledge, the Balinese who live in the study areas still depend on locally available indigenous plant species for their building materials. The cultivation of these indigenous plants is in a period of crisis, especially with regard to conservation.     

不同水肥条件下分根区交替灌溉对玉米生理特性和水分利用的影响

为探讨分根区交替灌溉(AI)条件下作物生理响应和水分利用情况,在不同水肥条件下,以常规灌溉为对照,研究了分根区交替灌溉(AI)对玉米总干物质量、水分利用和生理指标的影响以及这些指标在恢复正常灌水后的恢复补偿能力,以期为玉米实施分根区交替灌溉提供科学依据。盆栽试验包括2种氮磷(NP)肥水平,2种灌溉方式和不同亏水水平,即拔节前期至中期(18d)进行正常灌水(70%—80%θf,θf是田间持水量)、轻度亏水(60%—70%θf)和中度亏水(50%—60%θf),拔节前期至中期处理后拔节中期至抽雄期(18d)进行正常灌水(70%—80%θf)和轻度亏水(60%—70%θf)。结果表明:与常规灌溉相比,拔节前期至抽雄期AI不显著影响玉米叶片叶绿素、类胡萝卜素、可溶性糖和脯氨酸含量,总干物质量和水分利用效率;与正常灌水相比,拔节前期至抽雄期轻度亏水也不显著影响上述指标;拔节前期至中期中度亏水降低玉米叶绿素含量和总干物质量,提高可溶性糖和脯氨酸含量,但是该处理在拔节中期至抽雄期恢复正常灌水后这些指标均恢复到一直正常灌水的水平。此外,施肥水平对各项指标的影响也不显著。因此,轻度亏水、低肥和拔节前期至抽雄期分根区交替灌溉结合可以节约灌水量和施肥量。     

Enhancing water use efficiency and grain yield of wheat by optimizing irrigation supply in arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan

The lack of good irrigation practices and policy reforms in Pakistan triggers major threats to the water and food security of the country. In the future, irrigation will happen under the scarcity of water, as inadequate irrigation water becomes the requirement rather than the exception. The precise application of water with irrigation management is therefore needed. This research evaluated the wheat grain yield and water use efficiency (WUE) under limited irrigation practices in arid and semi-arid regions of Pakistan. DSSAT was used to simulate yield and assess alternative irrigation scheduling based on different levels of irrigation starting from the actual irrigation level up to 65% less irrigation. The findings demonstrated that different levels of irrigation had substantial effects on wheat grain yield and total water consumption. After comparing the different irrigation levels, the high amount of actual irrigation level in semi-arid sites decreased the WUE and wheat grain yield. However, the arid site (Site-1) showed the highest wheat grain yield 2394 kg ha^?1 and WUE 5.9 kg^?3 on actual irrigation (T₁), and with the reduction of water, wheat grain yield decreased continuously. The optimal irrigation level was attained on semi-arid (site-2) with 50% (T₁₁) less water where the wheat grain yield and WUE were 1925 kg ha^?1 and 4.47 kg^?3 respectively. The best irrigation level was acquired with 40% less water (T₉) on semi-arid (site-3), where wheat grain yield and WUE were 1925 kg ha^?1 and 4.57 kg^?3, respectively. The results demonstrated that reducing the irrigation levels could promote the growth of wheat, resulting in an improved WUE. In crux, significant potential for further improving the efficiency of agricultural water usage in the region relies on effective soil moisture management and efficient use of water.     

Precipitation pulse use by an invasive woody legume: the role of soil texture and pulse size

Plant metabolic activity in arid and semi-arid environments is largely tied to episodic precipitation events or “pulses”. The ability of plants to take up and utilize rain pulses during the growing season in these water-limited ecosystems is determined in part by pulse timing, intensity and amount, and by hydrological properties of the soil that translate precipitation into plant-available soil moisture. We assessed the sensitivity of an invasive woody plant, velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina Woot.), to large (35 mm) and small (10 mm) isotopically labeled irrigation pulses on two contrasting soil textures (sandy-loam vs. loamy-clay) in semi-desert grassland in southeastern Arizona, USA. Predawn leaf water potential (Ψ_pd), the isotopic abundance of deuterium in stem water (δD), the abundance of ¹³C in soluble leaf sugar (δ¹³C), and percent volumetric soil water content (θ_v) were measured prior to irrigation and repeatedly for 2 weeks following irrigation. Plant water potential and the percent of pulse water present in the stem xylem indicated that although mesquite trees on both coarse- and fine-textured soils quickly responded to the large irrigation pulse, the magnitude and duration of this response substantially differed between soil textures. After reaching a maximum 4 days after the irrigation, the fraction of pulse water in stem xylem decreased more rapidly on the loamy-clay soil than the sandy-loam soil. Similarly, on both soil textures mesquite significantly responded to the 10-mm pulse. However, the magnitude of this response was substantially greater for mesquite on the sandy-loam soil compared to loamy-clay soil. The relationship between Ψ_pd and δ¹³C of leaf-soluble carbohydrates over the pulse period did not differ between plants at the two sites, indicating that differences in photosynthetic response of mesquite trees to the moisture pulses was a function of soil water availability within the rooting zone rather than differences in plant biochemical or physiological constraints. Patterns of resource acquisition by mesquite during the dynamic wetting–drying cycle following rainfall pulses is controlled by a complex interaction between pulse size and soil hydraulic properties. A better understanding of how this interaction affects plant water availability and photosynthetic response is needed to predict how grassland structure and function will respond to climate change.