Termites (Isoptera) in forest ecosystems of Cat Tien National Park (Southern Vietnam)

The species composition, abundance and colony sizes of terrestrial termites were studied in five forest habitats of Cat Tien National Park, Southern Vietnam. Twenty-four species belonging to Rhinotermitidae (1 species) and Termitidae (23 species, mostly Macrotermitinae), were found in mounds and in soil samples. The density of inhabited termite nests in different habitats averaged 68 per hectare (range 44–106), most nests belonged to Macrotermes spp. Six mounds of dominant species (Globitermes sulphureus, Microcerotermes burmanicus, Macrotermes carbonarius, M. gilvus, M. malacensis and Hypotermes obscuriceps) were destructively sampled. The number of termites in the nests ranged from 65 000 to 3 150 000 individuals with the biomass ranging from 185 to 2440 g live weight. The abundance of foraging termites in soil and litter averaged 60 ind./m2.The total abundance of Macrotermes species alone could conservatively be estimated as 2.5 million individuals and 20.5 kg live weight per hectare. Four species dominating in the studied habitats (M. carbonarius, M. gilvus, M. malaccensis, and H. obscuriceps) belong to active litter decomposers.     

不同生境条件下核桃凋落叶次生代谢物质的差异及其分解初期对小白菜光合生理特性的影响

采用气质联用技术(GC-MS)分析了秦巴山区大巴山南坡和川西高山峡谷区两个不同生境条件下生长的核桃(Juglans regia)凋落叶中次生代谢物质的差异,并采用盆栽试验,研究了这两个地区核桃凋落叶分解对小白菜(Brassica chinensis)生长和光合生理特性的影响。试验设置F0(0 g/pot)、F1(30 g/pot)、F2(60 g/pot)、F3(120 g/pot)和F4(180 g/pot)5个凋落叶施用水平,分别将各处理的凋落叶与8 kg土壤混合后装盆,播种小白菜。分别于播种后20、45和75 d测定小白菜的生长指标,待凋落叶最高添加量处理组F4植株的第3片真叶完全展开后,测定小白菜的光合生理指标。结果表明:(1)采用GC-MS共检测出8类21种相对含量1%的次生代谢物质,其中,川西高山峡谷区核桃7类15种,相对含量总计56.03%,秦巴山区大巴山南坡核桃5类12种,相对含量总计51.46%。川西高山峡谷区核桃白菖油萜、茅苍术醇、β-桉叶醇、6,10,14-三甲基-2-十五烷酮、亚麻油酸、硬脂酸、十八醇、γ-谷甾醇、豆甾-4-烯-3-酮等为报道较多的潜在化感物质,其相对含量高于秦巴山区大巴山南坡核桃,而角鲨烯、δ-生育酚、黑麦草内酯等潜在的化感物质相对含量则低于秦巴山区大巴山南坡核桃;(2)播种后20 d和45 d,两个地区各添加量核桃凋落叶分解对小白菜生物量积累均产生显著的抑制作用,但75 d后效应减弱;(3)在凋落叶分解初期,小白菜叶片光合色素合成受到明显抑制,且随着凋落叶添加量增加抑制作用增强,与此同时,净光合速率(Pn)、气孔导度(Gs)和蒸腾速率(Tr)也明显受到核桃凋落叶分解的抑制;(4)总体来看,川西高山峡谷区核桃凋落叶化感作用大于秦巴山区大巴山南坡核桃凋落叶,这可能是由于前者经受较多的环境胁迫,体内积累了更多的酮类、烯烃、醇类和甾族化合物等化感物质造成的。     

A model of litter harvesting by the Western Australian wheatbelt termite,Drepanotermes tamminensis (Hill), with particular reference to nutrient dynamics

A series of papers have been published which describe the influence of vegetation and soil type on the Western Australian wheatbelt termite,Drepanotermes tamminensis (Hill), and also on its litter harvesting levels and contribution to the soil nutrient budget. This paper integrates these findings by means of a computer simulation model. The model consists of three modules which respectively describe the dynamics of litter on the ground, the dynamics of litter within termite mounds and how these in turn influence nutrient loads within the habitat. The outputs of the model suggest that this litter harvesting termite plays an important role in the nutrient dynamics of the area and it provides an estimate of the unmeasured variable, litter consumed in mounds by termites, which is consistent with measurements for other termite species with similar feeding habits.     

Termite mound density and distribution patterns across three land-use types in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province,South Africa

This study investigated the effect of land-use on density and distribution patterns of termite mounds. A total area of 12 ha was investigated using four 1 ha plots from each of three land-use types (mango orchards, maize fields and communal rangelands). A total of 297 mounds from four termite species were recorded. Plotted GIS coordinates for each mound in ArcMap showed a random distribution pattern in all land-use types. The mean number of mounds per hectare was significantly higher (p < 0.001) in communal rangelands (52.5 ± 1.21), than in maize fields (14.75 ± 3.15) and mango orchards (7.5 ± 0.87), and dominated by small-sized mounds of Trinervitermes sp. Few mounds of Odontotermes sp. were found. Mounds of the edible termites, Macrotermes natalensis and M. falciger, were found in all land-use types, with the highest density for both species being in maize fields. Although the mound height for both species was similar, mound circumference for M. falciger was significantly larger (p < 0.001) which may limit land available for agricultural use. Density of mounds was influenced by land-use which may lead to changes in termite ecosystem functioning and availability of termites as a free source of protein.     

Effects of density and predation risk on leaf litter processing by Phylloicus sp.

The allochthonous detritus that accumulates in the substrate of streams is used by aquatic invertebrate shredders for shelter and food. Shredders are considered rare in tropical systems, and little information is available about the role of density effects and predation risk (associated with the perception of predators by prey) in relationship to the resources used by these organisms. The aim of this study was to examine experimentally the effects of increased predation risk and of the density of Phylloicus sp. (i.e. of two types of biological relationships) on the processing of the leaf litter of Nectandra megapotamica (Spreng.) Mez. Phylloicus sp. can use leaf litter for case building and as a food resource. The density effect was measured using four treatments that differed only in the number of individuals (one, two, three or four). A second experiment with five treatments was performed to test the risk of non‐lethal predation on detritus consumption (shelter and food) by Phylloicus sp. (T1: Caddisfly; T2: Mayfly; T3: Astyanax sp./fish; T4: Damselflies; T5: Stonefly). A single Phylloicus and one other organism (a potential predator blocked with 0.5 mm fine mesh) were placed in each tank (0.002 m³ volume). We observed a negative effect of density on per capita litter consumption (experiment 1). The low density of Phylloicus may be a natural factor that decreases intraspecific competition. In the presence of fish, Phylloicus showed the lowest amount of litter processing observed in the experiment, indicating top‐down control (experiment 2). In treatments that involved the presence of invertebrates (non‐predatory and predatory), Phylloicus showed the highest amount and an intermediate amount of leaf litter processing, respectively (experiment 2). This observation also suggests that the predation effect is more probable for specific predator–prey pairs. Population density and predation risk in Phylloicus may be important factors controlling leaf litter processing.     

Termites (Isoptera) as secondary occupants in mounds of Macrotermes michaelseni (Sj?stedt) in Kenya

Termites were found as secondary occupants in mounds of Macrotermes michaelseni (Sj?stedt) in Kajiado District, in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya. Data are presented from 34 mounds that were completely demolished and extracted to analyse the population of the primary nest. Secondary occupants were found in 29 of the 34 mounds, averaging 2.4 species per occupied mound (or 2.1 species per mound overall). The termites belonged to nine species, three of which were not found anywhere else in the area of study. The frequency of occurrence of the different species and their degree of association with the host mounds are examined and discussed.     

The effects of sheep-grazing on the subterranean termite fauna (Isoptera) of the Western Australian wheatbelt

Abstract The majority of existing remnants of wandoo Eucalyptus capillosa woodland in the Western Australian wheatbelt have been grazed by sheep for several decades and are often visibly degraded. A pilot survey was conducted into the effects of sheep on vegetation and soil variables, and the abundance, diversity and species frequency of occurrence of subterranean termite communities. Ten 1/4 ha study plots were used for paired grazed/ungrazed comparisons. Ungrazed plots had more litter mass (dry weight), leaf and woody litter, canopy cover (%) and soil moisture (moisture content <1.2% across study plots); grazed plots had a higher percentage of bare ground. Termites were as abundant, and as diverse, in grazed as in ungrazed plots, and were equally often sampled in the soil and surface wood. Termite species eating sound wood, decayed wood/debris and grass were sampled equally often, and were of equal diversity in sheep-grazed as in ungrazed plots. The mounds of Drepanotermes tamminensis were more abundant in grazed plots. These findings indicate that prolonged sheep grazing in remnants of wandoo woodland of the Western Australian wheatbelt has had no detrimental or beneficial effect on its subterranean termites.     

森林群落物种组成对凋落物组成的影响

在海南铜鼓岭山麓灌木林和季雨矮林固定大样地的基础上,通过收集凋落物,比较两林型的凋落物数量及其器官组成、凋落叶物种组成,探讨森林群落物种组成与凋落物组成的关系。结果表明:(1)两林型的凋落物总量及其器官组成不同,山麓灌木林(6.227 t/hm~2)比季雨矮林的年凋落量大(5.636 t/hm~2);凋落叶是凋落物的主要组成部分,能反映凋落物的凋落情况。(2)山麓灌木林凋落物优势种和主要物种为贡甲、林仔竹、橄树等15个物种,凋落叶总量占77.72%;季雨矮林的凋落物优势种和主要物种为方枝蒲桃、肖蒲桃、贡甲等17个物种,凋落叶总量占71.84%;山麓灌木林中凋落物优势种和主要物种的叶凋落量与其组成物种的株数、总断面积、树冠面积极显著正相关而季雨矮林的凋落物优势种和主要物种的叶凋落量与其组成物种的株数极显著正相关。山麓灌木林中两者的Jaccard相似性系数为20%,季雨矮林为25.93%,两林型的群落物种组成与凋落叶物种组成不一致,热带森林群落优势种不一定是凋落物优势种。     

The relative contributions of termites and microarthropods to fluff grass litter disappearance in the Chihuahuan Desert

Summary We tested the hypotheses that both subterranean termites and soil microarthropods are important in the disappearance of fluff grass (Erioneuron pulchellum) litter on the soil surface by an experiment designed to separate termite and microarthropod effects. Subterranean termites (Gnathamitermes tubiformans) removed more than 50% of the fluff grass litter in one year.Since there was no difference in mass loss of fluff grass with microarthropods present or excluded, they had no effect on decomposition of fluff grass litter. Microarthropod densities increased during the first 3 months then slowly decreased. The densities of microarthropods in fluff grass litter were too low to have a measurable effect on decomposition even if we assumed that the microarthropods consumed litter equivalent to their body weight each day.     

香樟凋落叶分解物对辣椒生长发育的影响

采用盆栽试验,研究了香樟(Cinnamomum camphora)凋落叶(0、25、50、75、100g凋落叶分别与10kg土壤混合)分解过程中对辣椒(Capsicum annuum)及其子代生长发育的影响,并采用气质联用(GC-MS)技术对凋落叶分解前后的萜类物质进行了检测和对比。结果显示:(1)香樟凋落叶分解物显著地抑制了辣椒的叶片数量、整株叶面积以及株高和基径生长,抑制效应随凋落叶剂量的增大而增强,而分解过的凋落叶和塑料片替代凋落叶原样的试验并不抑制辣椒的生长。(2)观察期内(处理45~76d),辣椒的现蕾数、开花数和结实数在各凋落叶处理下均明显低于同期对照;采用指数方程拟合的现蕾、开花和结实动态显示,25g凋落叶处理使辣椒的始蕾期、始花期和始果期分别推迟了0.81、0.17和1.35d,50g处理使这3项参数分别推迟了4.69、5.78和6.27d,而75g和100g处理均使这3项参数推迟10d以上。(3)辣椒的单株果实产量在凋落叶处理下降低29.44%~61.29%,而单果重受到的影响相对较小。(4)辣椒产出的种子千粒重和子代的生长状况并未受到凋落叶分解物的影响。(5)凋落叶的正己烷提取物中萜类占78.05%,而分解后其相对总量下降至40.76%,峰面积下降至原样的约1%。研究认为:香樟凋落叶添加处理对辣椒营养生长和生殖生长产生的明显抑制作用,不是由凋落叶添加对土壤通气透水性或对受体生长造成机械阻隔引起的,其在分解过程中释放樟脑(Camphor)、1,8-桉叶油醇(1,8-cineole)等萜类物质引起化感作用可能才是关键原因。     

美洲黑杨凋落叶分解初期对小白菜生长的影响

采用盆栽试验,研究了美洲黑杨(Populus deltoides)凋落叶分解初期对受体植物小白菜(Brassica chinensis)生长和生理的影响。试验设置0、30、60和90 g/盆4个凋落叶施用水平(分别记作CK、L30、L60和L90)。同时,为检验凋落叶施入是否对土壤通气透水性产生明显影响进而影响受体植物的生长,用蒸煮后的凋落叶设置平行空白试验,即30、60、90 g/盆3个蒸著后的凋落叶处理(分别记作Z30、Z60和Z90)。将各处理的凋落叶分别与7 kg土壤混合,播种小白菜。在播种后50、80 d测定小白菜株高和生理指标。结果表明:1)高量(L90)凋落叶下小白菜的高生长和鲜重于50 d时被显著抑制,80 d时长势恢复正常;2)80 d时各处理净光合速率(Pn)与CK水平相当,色素含量略低于CK;3)50、80 d时,低(L30)、中(L60)量处理的超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性无明显变化,高量处理下SOD活性升高;4)各处理丙二醛(MDA)含量在50、80 d时与CK均无显著差异。总的来看,杨树各凋落叶量处理对小白菜的影响表现为:低、中量促进,高量抑制,而经蒸煮后的凋落叶处理间差异不显著。表明,低、中量杨树凋落叶在土壤中分解对小白菜生长及生理代谢的影响主要表现为促进作用,而施入高量凋落叶的初期,化感抑制作用明显。     

Nutrient cycling by the subterranean termite Gnathamitermes tubiformans in a Chihuahuan desert ecosystem

Summary We estimated the density of subterranean termites Gnathamitermes tubiformans at 800,000 · ha^-1 for a standing crop biomass of 2 kg · ha^-1 Predation losses were estimated to be 5,73 kg · ha^-1 · yr^-1 representing the major release of nutrients from termites to surficial soil layers. Nutrient fluxes from termites to predators amounted to 410g N·ha^-1·yr^-1, 33 g S · ha^-1 · yr^-1 and 19 g P · ha^-1 · yr^-1. These fluxes account for 8% of the litter N, 1.5% of the litter P and 2.9% of the litter S. The termites fixed an estimated 66 g · ha^-1 · yr^-1 atmospheric N and returned an estimated 100 g · ha^-1 · yr^-1 in the surface gallery carton. Since losses of elements from subterannean termites were greater than standing crops, we estimated an annual turnover of N at 3.5 times per year, P of 2.5 times per year, and S of 2.5 per times per year.Since surface foraging, predation and alate flights are pulse regulated by rainfall, nutrient flows through subterranean termites are episodic and releases of nutrients accumulated in termite biomass preceeds or is coincident with productivity pulses of some shallow rooted plants. We propose that subterranean termites are important as regulators in desert nutrient cycles.     

Strong positive effects of termites on savanna bird abundance and diversity are amplified by large herbivore exclusion

Vast areas of the African savanna landscapes are characterized by tree‐covered Macrotermes termite mounds embedded within a relatively open savanna matrix. In concert with termites, large herbivores are important determinants of savanna woody vegetation cover. The relative cover of woody species has considerable effects on savanna function. Despite the potentially important ecological relationships between termite mounds, woody plants, large herbivores, and birds, these associations have previously received surprisingly little attention. We experimentally studied the effects of termites and large herbivores on the avian community in Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda, where woody vegetation is essentially limited to termite mounds. Our experiment comprised of four treatments in nine replicates; unfenced termite mounds, fenced mounds (excluding large mammals), unfenced adjacent savanna, and fenced savanna. We recorded species identity, abundance, and behavior of all birds observed on these plots over a two‐month period, from late dry until wet season. Birds used termite mounds almost exclusively, with only 3.5% of observations occurring in the treeless intermound savanna matrix. Mean abundance and species richness of birds doubled on fenced (large herbivores excluded) compared to unfenced mounds. Feeding behavior increased when large mammals were excluded from mounds, both in absolute number of observed individuals, and relative to other behaviors. This study documents the fundamental positive impact of Macrotermes termites on bird abundance and diversity in an African savanna. Birds play crucial functional roles in savanna ecosystems, for example, by dispersing fruits or regulating herbivorous insect populations. Thus, the role of birds in savanna dynamics depends on the distribution and abundance of termite mounds.     

The keystone role of leaf-removing crabs in mangrove forests of North Brazil

Principle factors which influence mangroveleaf litter turnover, in particular therole of leaf-removing crabs, were evaluatedin a riverine mangrove site nearBragança (Pará, North Brazil). Ourspecial interest was focussed on the roleof the leaf-removing crab Ucidescordatus. Leaf litter fluxes between themangrove forest and the adjacent estuarywere investigated by estimating the biomassand fate of leaf litter material and propagules. Vegetation is dominated by Rhizophora mangle, with Avicenniagerminans trees, both up to 25 m high,found intermittently. During 1997, Rhizophora trees produced around 1.40 gDW m^-2 d^-1 of leave fall and0.75 g DW m^-2 d^-1 of propagules.Leaf decomposition rates on the ground wereabout 0.06 g DW m^-2 d^-1,irrespective of species, habitat or siteexposure. This amount accounts for <3%of total leaf fall. Average leaf litterbiomass present on the ground was 0.01 gDW m^-2 d^-1. When the mangroveforest was flooded (on average 10 days permonth) the quantity of leaf litterand propagules washed out with the springtide was 10 and 17 times greater thanduring neap tide. Nevertheless, tidalexport and decomposition together made upless than 39 percent of annual leaf litterfall. The bulk of the remaining amount isapparently removed by Ucides. Eachcrab consumed about 1.30 g DW of leaflitter material and propagules per day.Since the average density of these crabswas 1.38 crabs m^-2, it is proposedthat Ucides is a keystone species inBragantinian mangroves.     

Effects of Erosion from Mounds of Different Termite Genera on Distinct Functional Grassland Types in an African Savannah

A key aspect of savannah vegetation heterogeneity is mosaics formed by two functional grassland types, bunch grasslands, and grazing lawns. We investigated the role of termites, important ecosystem engineers, in creating high-nutrient patches in the form of grazing lawns. Some of the ways termites can contribute to grazing lawn development is through erosion of soil from aboveground mounds to the surrounding soil surface. This may alter the nutrient status of the surrounding soils. We hypothesize that the importance of this erosion varies with termite genera, depending on feeding strategy and mound type. To test this, we simulated erosion by applying mound soil from three termite genera (Macrotermes, Odontotermes, and Trinervitermes) in both a field experiment and a greenhouse experiment. In the greenhouse experiment, we found soils with the highest macro nutrient levels (formed by Trinervitermes) promoted the quality and biomass of both a lawn (Digitaria longiflora) and a bunch (Sporobolus pyramidalis) grass species. In the field we found that soils with the highest micro nutrient levels (formed by Macrotermes) showed the largest increase in cover of grazing lawn species. By linking the different nutrient availability of the mounds to the development of different grassland states, we conclude that the presence of termite mounds influences grassland mosaics, but that the type of mound plays a crucial role in determining the nature of the effects.     

Decomposition of litter in sub-alpine forests of Eucalyptus delegatensis,E. pauciflora and E. dives

The rate of decomposition of summer leaf-fall (abscised leaves), winter leaf-fall (containing some green leaves) and mature green (picked) leaves was assessed in sub-alpine forests of E. delegatensis (R. T. Baker), E. pauciflora (Sieb. ex Spreng) and E. dives (Schau.) in the Brindabella Range, Australian Capital Territory, using litter bag and tethered leaf techniques. The relative contribution of leaching, microbial respiration and grazing by invertebrate macrofauna to loss of leaf weight was determined. The effect of leaching and microbial respiration was assessed in terms of weight loss per unit area of leaf (specific leaf weight), while losses due to macro-faunal grazing were assessed by measuring reductions in leaf area. Litter decomposition constants for litter components (leaf, bark, wood) and total litter were determined from long-term records of litterfall and accumulated litter. Weight losses of abscised leaves during the initial 12 months ranged from 25% for E. pauciflora to 39% for E. delegatensis and were almost entirely due to reduction in specific leaf weight. Losses in the weight of leaves falling in winter ranged from 38 to 49%, while green leaves lost 45 - 59%. Approximately 50% of the total weight loss of green leaves was due to a loss in leaf area caused by skeletonization by litter macrofauna. Thus abscised leaves rather than green leaves must be used for measuring litter decomposition rates since abscised leaves constitute most of the litterfall in eucalypt forests. Leaves placed in the field in autumn decomposed slowly during the first summer, while the rate increased during the second winter and summer. Low litter moisture content appears to limit decomposition in the initial summer period in all communities, after which litterfall provides a mulch which reduces the rate of desiccation of lower litter layers. A simple linear regression model relating decomposition rate to the number of days (D) when litter moisture content exceeded 60% ODW accounted for 63-83% of the variation in decomposition of leaves in the field. Inclusion of mean monthly air temperature (T) and the product of D and T (day degrees when litter was wet) in a multiple linear regression increased the variation in decomposition accounted for to 80 – 90%. The rate of weight loss showed a positive linear relationship with the initial concentration of nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P) in the leaf. These concentrations are an index of the decomposability of leaf substrates (e.g. degree of sclerophylly or lignification). The rate of loss of specific weight was similar for tethered leaves and for leaves enclosed in mesh bags. Measured loss in specific leaf weight after 70 – 90 weeks was less than that predicted using decomposition constants (k).     

The distribution,abundance, and the effects of fire on mound building termites (Trinervitermes and Cubitermes spp., Isoptera: Termitidae) in northern guinea savanna West Africa

Summary Termite mound densities in typical guinea savanna, Detarium, and grassland (boval) habitats in northern guinea savanna were determined by random quadratting of 2–3 sites in each habitat (100, 10x10 m quadrats per habitat). Dominant species in guinea savanna were T. geminatus (46 mounds ha^-1) and T. oeconomus (21 mounds ha^-1), in Detarium T. geminatus (59 mounds ha^-1) and C. curtatus (45 mounds ha^-1) and in boval C. curtatus (72 mounds ha^-1) and T. geminatus (22 mounds ha^-1). Only C. curtatus densities and total densities differed significantly between sites within habitats, but all species differed significantly in abundance between habitats. The composition of each community was related to general environment but no particular environmental variable was shown to be a major determinant of termite distribution. Evidence for the limitation of termite populations was obtained from indirect evidence of competition between colonies in Detarium, and by experimental manipulation of fire regimes in the typical guinea savanna habitat. Harvester termites increased four-five fold over two years in fire-protected plots as a result of increased food supplies. Total termite densities in the fire-protected community equilibrated to the new population density (100 mounds ha^-1) after only two-three years.     

Productivity and mineral cycling in an oak coppice forest 2. Annual net production of the forest

Annual net production was estimated in the secondary coppice forest near Tokyo, which was dominated by a deciduous oak,Quercus serrata Thunb. Lateral growth of stems and old branches was directly estimated by examining the annual rings for 35 shoots in a clear-cut quadrat of 10m×10m. Phytomasses of current organs were also weighed in the quadrat. Preharvest losses of current organs were determined by twelve 0.5 m² litter traps for fine litter and twelve 6 m² quadrats for woody litter. Branch production was also assessed indirectly by use of the stem-branch allometry and death of branches. The results of the indirect method were in sufficient agreement with the result of the direct one. Grazing loss of leaves from the canopy was estimated directly from the loss in leaf area and indirectly from the animal faeces caught by the litter traps. Net production of the canopy trees was 149 kg a⁻¹ year⁻¹, in which leaf production was 36.9 kg. Animals grazed about 14% of the leaf area by the end of the growing season. True consumption of leaves by animals was 7.6% of leaf production or 10% of leaf mass. Production of undergrowth, mainly a dwarf bamboo,Pleioblastus chino Makino, was 28 kg a⁻¹ year⁻¹, being 15% of the total stand production. Productivity of this forest was significantly higher than that of cool-temperate deciduous broadleaf forests.     

Effects of leaf litter on woody seedlings in xeric successional communities

We investigated the effect of leaf litter on the establishment of Eucalyptus incrassata, a mallee eucalypt. It has been suggested that litter accumulation may hinder seedling establishment, and that the removal of litter may be one of the mechanisms through which fire enhances recruitment. We conducted factorial experiments testing the effects of three kinds of leaf litter on E. incrassata seeds and seedlings at three contiguous sites with different land use histories. One site was an uncleared E. incrassata open mallee woodland (Mallee site), one a cleared area that had been ungrazed for about five years (Pasture site) and the third an area of mallee rolled some 40 years ago and permitted to regenerate (Regrowth site). Litter had no effect on emergence of planted E. incrassata seeds, but emergence differed between sites. Overall, the percentage of seeds that germinated and emerged was substantial (mean 35.2% ± 25.9%). Seedling shoot biomass did not differ between sites or litter treatments. Although seedlings grown in Pasture litter suffered higher mortality rates, overall mortality rates were low (mean 13.2% ± 15.5%), suggesting that leaf litter has little effect on recruitment rates during winter and spring. We conclude that leaf litter does not affect emergence or growth in young E. incrassata seedlings during winter and spring, when most establishment occurs. Our results emphasize the difficulty in predicting litter effects on recruitment.     

The relationship between wood litter infall and relative abundance and feeding activity of subterranean termites Reticulitermes spp. in three southeastern coastal plain habitats

We estimated the densities of termites in dead wood using a point-quarter technique in four habitats: pine plantations subject to control burning and unburned, lowland hardwood forest, and turkey oak woodland. The burned pine plantation had the highest estimated termite density, 13×10⁶·ha^-1 unburned pine plantation and lowland hardwood had estimated densities of 2.6×10⁶·ha^-1 and 2.2×10⁶·ha^-1, respectively, and the turkey oak woodland had an estimated densities of 61.9×10³·ha^-1. There were varying percentages of Reticulitermes flavipes and R. virginicus in the various habitats. There was nearly linear increase in percentage of pine blocks attacked by termites in the pine and hardwood forests and by the end of the growing season, nearly all had been channelized by termites. In the turkey oak habitat 70% of the pine blocks were channelized. Termites removed between 3% and 12% of the original mass of over one-fourth of the pine blocks during the growing season.Wood litter in fall was highest in the lowland hardwood forest: 2869 kg·ha^-1·yr^-1. Wood litter input in the long leaf pine plantation, 792 kg·ha^-1·yr^-1 was nearly equivalent to the three year average wood litter in fall in a Danish oak forest.