Wildfires in the western Canadian boreal forest: Landscape patterns and ecosystem management

Abstract. Mimicking of natural disturbance for ecosystem management requires an understanding of the disturbance processes and the resulting landscape patterns. Since fire is the major disturbance in the boreal forest, three widely held beliefs about fire behavior and resulting landscape patterns are examined in light of the empirical evidence available. These beliefs are: (1) that there is a ‘natural’ fire frequency for boreal ecosystems; (2) that the landscape mosaic created by wildfire is generally one of small, younger patches embedded within a matrix of older forest; and (3) that forest flammability is largely controlled by fuel accumulation. Despite the apparently logical basis for such beliefs, they are not well supported by empirical evidence. This discrepancy is explained by problems such as failure to appreciate the relationship between number of fires and area burned and inappropriate extrapolations or generalizations from other regions and vegetation types. The most important implications for management are that the natural disturbance processes producing landscape patterns in the boreal forest generally operate at much larger scales than management units, and that humans may have more indirect (through landuse change) rather than direct (through fire suppression) effects on the frequency of wildfires.     

Denning ecology of the striped skunk in the Canadian prairies: implications for waterfowl nest predation

1. From 1993 to 1995, we studied the summer denning ecology of 40 radio-collared striped skunks Mephitis mephitis (32 females, eight males) during the waterfowl nesting season in Saskatchewan, Canada.
2. Forty-seven natal dens were used by 30 females. Natal den sites were either underground burrows (55%) or holes underneath buildings (45%), and were preferably located in farmsteads.
3. Male and female striped skunks used similar resting sites which consisted of above-ground retreats (57%), underground burrows (23%), buildings (17%) and culverts (3%).
4. Habitat preferences for resting sites did not differ between males and females: both sexes preferred farmsteads and wetlands, whereas managed waterfowl nesting areas, woodland and miscellanous habitats were avoided. Cropland was avoided for both natal dens and resting sites.
5. Females did not simultaneously share natal dens or resting sites, but both types of retreats were occupied by different females over time. Natal dens were occupied for 47 ± 3 days for females using a single den vs. 60 ± 3 days for females using >1 natal dens. Den switching may have been induced by a build-up of faeces.
6. Management of natal den sites such as abandoned farmsteads and buildings may provide an avenue of non-destructive predator management that is less expensive and controversial than exclusion or control.     

Regeneration of planted conifers across climatic moisture gradients on the Canadian prairies: implications for distribution and climate change

The influence of dry climates on white spruce ( Picea glauca (Moench) Voss)) regeneration was examined by conducting surveys of seedlings and small trees that had regenerated naturally at 100 farm shelterbelts and plantations in southern Saskatchewan, Canada. The sites surveyed were located along a climate moisture gradient extending from the relatively moist boreal forest, across the aspen parkland, to the semi-arid prairie grasslands. Natural regeneration was greatest at sites in the boreal forest and northern aspen parkland, decreased in the southern aspen parkland, and was negligible in the grassland zone. Furthermore, the few seedlings found in the drier zones were usually in poor condition. Similar results were obtained for the introduced Colorado spruce ( Picea pungens Engelm.) and Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.). It is concluded that the present climate of the southern parkland and grassland is too dry to permit natural regeneration of white spruce and other conifers. If increases in atmospheric CO₂ levels lead to a drier future climate in the southern boreal forest of western Canada, the ability of conifers to regenerate naturally may be significantly reduced.     

Seasonal and daily activity patterns of striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) in the Canadian prairies

We investigated the hypothesis that the daily and seasonal activity patterns of female and male striped skunks ( Mephitis mephitis ) vary with reproductive constraints. Four biological periods were identified: pre-parturition (1 April–14 May), parturition and rearing (15 May–30 June), pre-dispersal (1–31 July), and dispersal (1–31 August). Tracking data (1873h) indicated that activity (percentage time active) of female skunks varied among seasons, being lowest during the pre-parturition period (34 ± 10%), and highest during the pre-dispersal period (66 ± 4%). Male activity did not vary among seasons (55 ± 3%). Animals of both sexes were mostly nocturnal, and had similar patterns of daily activity. Onset and cessation of activity were highly variable, but were not affected by season or sex. Daily activity typically started 13 ± 10 min before sunset, and was terminated 35 ± 8min before sunrise. Night-time activity periods of both sexes were often (57%, n = 108) interrupted by at least one resting period (median = 1, range = 0–4). However, females rarely (5%, n = 89) returned to the maternal den to rest. We hypothesize that the nocturnal activity of adults is linked to prey activity and reduced predation risk, whereas apparent diurnal activity of juveniles represents an adaptation to daily fasting periods caused by the nocturnal foraging trips of females.     

Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications

Alien microbes, fungi, plants and animals occur on most of the sub-Antarctic islands and some parts of the Antarctic continent. These have arrived over approximately the last two centuries, coincident with human activity in the region. Introduction routes have varied, but are largely associated with movement of people and cargo in connection with industrial, national scientific program and tourist operations. The large majority of aliens are European in origin. They have both direct and indirect impacts on the functioning of species-poor Antarctic ecosystems, in particular including substantial loss of local biodiversity and changes to ecosystem processes. With rapid climate change occurring in some parts of Antarctica, elevated numbers of introductions and enhanced success of colonization by aliens are likely, with consequent increases in impacts on ecosystems. Mitigation measures that will substantially reduce the risk of introductions to Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic must focus on reducing propagule loads on humans, and their food, cargo, and transport vessels.     

Aquatic macrophytes in saline lakes of the Canadian prairies

Vascular macrophyte species richness decreases with increasing salinity. Only three species of submerged plants (Potamogeton pectinatus, Ruppia maritima, R. occidentalis) tolerate hypersaline waters (>50 g l^-1, total of ionic constituents). Eight emergent species occur in more saline habitats but only five (Scirpus maritimus var. paludosus, Distichlisstricta, Puccinellia nuttalliana, Scirpus americanus, Triglochin maritima) occur commonly over a range of saline lakes into the hypersaline category. Usually, species tolerant of high salinities are found over the entire saline spectrum and even extend into subsaline waters (<3 g l^-1) and thrive there. A major increase in the number of species occurs below 5 g l^-1. As the water recedes plants such as Salicornia rubra, Suaeda calceoliformes, Hordeum jubatum and Sonchus arvensis invade.Submerged angiosperm distribution is controlled by total ion concentration and substrate texture plays no apparent role. Although angiosperms normally grow in all kinds of substrates, they occupy coarse substrates in Wakaw lake because suitable fine substrates are densely colonized by charophytes. In this lake light limited growth occurs to a depth of 5% of surface light. Light was not limiting in Redberry Lake but angiosperm growth was limited to the upper 8 m (10% or more of surface light). Thermal stratification and depth (pressure) were probably limiting istead. In meromictic Waldsea Lake the depth of the chemocline (6 m, 5% surface light) delimits angiosperm growth.     

Relationships between grazing and waterfowl production in the Canadian prairies

The survival of waterfowl nests is positively correlated with the amount of grassland on the landscape, and population growth rates of some waterfowl species (e.g., mallards [Anas platyrhynchos]) are sensitive to nest survival rates. Thus, the effect of actions that alter grassland vegetation physiognomy, such as grazing, on waterfowl production is of interest to waterfowl habitat managers. Additionally, grasslands contribute other ecological goods (e.g., forage for livestock and wildlife) and services (e.g., photosynthesis, carbon sequestration), which can be influenced by grazing practices. We address key uncertainties about the linkages between grazing, vegetation physiognomy, and the survival and density of duck nests at study-site, field, and nest-site spatial scales. Using data from 2,554 duck nests found in 434 grazed or idled fields (median field size = 48.0 ha) in the Canadian Prairie Pothole Region between 2002 and 2009, we found that vegetation physiognomy affected nest survival at both the field and nest-site scales, such that nest survival increased with nest-site vegetation density and late-season field vegetation density. Nest survival also responded to early-season within-field variation in vegetation height in a quadratic manner, such that survival was greatest in fields with moderate variation in vegetation height. Nest survival was negatively related to the intensity of grazing and to the amount of cropland in the surrounding landscape. Both the abundance of wetlands and the average vegetation height in the field had a positive influence on nest density. Fields idled during the breeding season had greater densities of nests than fields grazed either early or late in the breeding season. Leaving lands idled may be the most effective way to increase both waterfowl nest survival and nest density. When management of upland vegetation is required, we recommend grazing at moderate stocking rates (between 2 and 2.5 animal unit months [AUM]/ha) after the waterfowl breeding season is complete and monitoring vegetative characteristics to ensure they remain suitable to attract nesting waterfowl (e.g., leaving vegetation height >28 cm). Where grazing must be carried out during the breeding season, low to moderate stocking rates should be encouraged as these rates appear to have the least negative impact on both waterfowl nest survival and nest density. These stocking rates also will maintain rangeland in good condition to the long-term benefit of producers. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.     

Multidecadal to millennial-scale shifts in drought conditions on the Canadian prairies over the past six millennia: implications for future drought assessment

Three high-resolution climatic reconstructions, based on diatom analyses from lake sediment cores from the Canadian prairies, show that shifts in drought conditions have prevailed on centennial to millennial time scales for at least the past six millennia. These shifts in mean aridity exhibit broad regional synchrony, with particularly pronounced shifts at all sites between ∼1700–2000 cal. yr bp and ∼3600–3900 cal. yr bp , as well as at ∼5400–5500 cal. yr bp for the two sites which extend back to at least 6000 cal. yr bp . The two Saskatchewan lakes exhibited significant coherence in both the timing and direction of these shifts, whereas inferred changes at the westernmost site in Alberta were significantly correlated to the Saskatchewan sites, but opposite in sign, and exhibited more high-frequency variation on the scale of centuries. The mechanisms behind these abrupt shifts in aridity are poorly understood, but may be linked to changes in oceanic–atmospheric interactions that influence the mean position of the jetstream and the associated storm tracks. Natural shifts in mean climatic conditions may accelerate with increasing carbon dioxide levels intensifying the likelihood of extreme droughts in North American prairies.     

Occupancy dynamics of escaped farmed Atlantic salmon in Canadian Pacific coastal salmon streams: implications for sustained invasions

Farmed non-native Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is the largest agriculture export product of British Columbia, Canada. Chronic low-volume escapes of salmon from farms into Pacific waters (“leakage”) are typically undetectable (Britton et al. 2011). Analysis of escape-reporting from farmers indicates that reports greatly underestimate the true number of Atlantic salmon inadvertently released from open-net pen rearing sites (Morton and Volpe 2002). To quantify the spatial extent of escaped Atlantic salmon in Canadian Pacific rivers, we systematically snorkel-surveyed 41 known Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.)-supporting rivers and creeks on Vancouver Island over a span of 3 years. We estimated and accounted for imperfect detections using multi-season occupancy models. We detected Atlantic salmon in 36.6 % of surveyed rivers. After accounting for imperfect detection, occupancy models estimated that over half of surveyed streams across the study area contained Atlantic salmon, and that 97 % of streams with high native salmon diversity were occupied by Atlantic salmon. Even in intensive snorkel surveys, Atlantic salmon are detected in occupied streams only 2/3 the time, suggesting abundance and distribution of non-native salmon is greater than indicated by the only existing data. Further, Atlantic salmon are more likely to occupy streams with high native Pacific salmon diversity—and more likely to maintain occupancy across years—potentially increasing competitive pressure on native salmonids. Understanding local biotic and abiotic predictors of Atlantic salmon occupancy, stream colonization, and local extinction requires more data; the same is true for the effects of escaped Atlantic salmon on local salmon diversity and sustainability. These data for the first time show that Atlantic salmon occupy Pacific coastal rivers for multiple years. The impact of Atlantic salmon occupancy in British Columbia rivers must be factored into policy decisions regarding the future of salmon farming in the provincial waters.     

Tree invasions: patterns,processes, challenges and opportunities

Tree invasions have escalated in importance in the last few decades (more species, greater area invaded, more types of impacts, increasing complexity of management challenges), and are increasingly studied from many perspectives. This research spans many disciplines, including ecology, population biology, genetics, remote sensing, ecological modelling, risk analysis, resource economics and, increasingly, the humanities. There has been substantial progress in understanding patterns and processes, but many unanswered questions remain. Only a few invasive trees have been well studied, many of them in only a small part of their invasive range. Invasive trees often have substantial impacts, especially when they invade formerly treeless vegetation. Trees have several features that make them useful for understanding key aspects of biological invasions (the determinants of invasiveness and invasibility), but also the full spectrum of human perceptions and values that frames biological invasions as an environmental problem. This editorial provides background and summarizes the main outputs from a workshop held in Argentina in September 2012 that set out to summarize current knowledge on key topics and to determine the most important challenges facing researchers and managers. The sixteen papers in the special issue of Biological Invasions span disciplines, geographic regions and taxa and provide novel insights on pathways and historical perspectives, detection and monitoring, determinants of invasiveness, function and impact, and the many challenges that face managers.     

Linking biodiversity to ecosystem function: implications for conservation ecology

We evaluate the empirical and theoretical support for the hypothesis that a large proportion of native species richness is required to maximize ecosystem stability and sustain function. This assessment is important for conservation strategies because sustenance of ecosystem functions has been used as an argument for the conservation of species. If ecosystem functions are sustained at relatively low species richness, then arguing for the conservation of ecosystem function, no matter how important in its own right, does not strongly argue for the conservation of species. Additionally, for this to be a strong conservation argument the link between species diversity and ecosystem functions of value to the human community must be clear. We review the empirical literature to quantify the support for two hypotheses: (1) species richness is positively correlated with ecosystem function, and (2) ecosystem functions do not saturate at low species richness relative to the observed or experimental diversity. Few empirical studies demonstrate improved function at high levels of species richness. Second, we analyze recent theoretical models in order to estimate the level of species richness required to maintain ecosystem function. Again we find that, within a single trophic level, most mathematical models predict saturation of ecosystem function at a low proportion of local species richness. We also analyze a theoretical model linking species number to ecosystem stability. This model predicts that species richness beyond the first few species does not typically increase ecosystem stability. One reason that high species richness may not contribute significantly to function or stability is that most communities are characterized by strong dominance such that a few species provide the vast majority of the community biomass. Rapid turnover of species may rescue the concept that diversity leads to maximum function and stability. The role of turnover in ecosystem function and stability has not been investigated. Despite the recent rush to embrace the linkage between biodiversity and ecosystem function, we find little support for the hypothesis that there is a strong dependence of ecosystem function on the full complement of diversity within sites. Given this observation, the conservation community should take a cautious view of endorsing this linkage as a model to promote conservation goals. Received: 2 September 1999 / Accepted: 26 October 1999     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in mesocarnivores of the Canadian prairies

The protozoon Toxoplasma gondii has a worldwide distribution and affects many species of warm-blooded animals. In the Canadian prairies, mesocarnivores such as striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) and raccoons (Procyon lotor) have experienced an increase in density and distribution, and they are in close contact with human dwellings. However, there has been no systematic study on the seroprevalence of T. gondii in these mesocarnivore populations. The objectives of the current project were to determine the serum antibody prevalence of T. gondii in Canadian prairie mesocarnivores and to study the relationship between antibody prevalence and species, sex, age, location, and year of collection. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 5 of 24 (20.8%) skunks from Saskatchewan trapped in 1999 and 5 of 40 (12.5%) in 2000. Seroprevalences for T. gondii in raccoons and skunks trapped in Manitoba were 2 of 10 (20%) raccoons trapped in 2002, 7 of 44 (15.9%) trapped in 2003, and 16 of 37 (43.2%) trapped in 2004; and in 13 of 99 (13.1%) skunks trapped in 2003, 29 of 131 (22.1%) trapped in 2004, 53 of 165 (32.1%) trapped in 2005, and 30 of 51 (58.8%) trapped in 2006. Age, location, and year, but not the host species, were important variables in the determining the seroprevalence of T. gondii in skunks and raccoons. Results confirm that T. gondii is endemic in the skunk and raccoon populations in the Canadian prairies.     

Variability and trends of corn heat units on the Canadian prairies

Seasonal accumulations of corn heat units were calculated from temperature records of 85 stations in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. The number of years of data varied from 16 to 72. The objectives of the study were to determine how many years of data were necessary to obtain a reliable estimate of CHU for each station and to examine possible CHU trends with time. Stein's two-stage sampling technique was used to show that about 20 years of data should be used to obtain a reliable estimate of the location mean. When years were taken at random, the number of years of data needed for a location was larger than when taken in sequence. Statistically significant indications of trends in CHU with time were found for only about 11% of the stations. Year-to-year variability was considerably greater than any possible trends in the last half-century. Means and standard errors of the deviations from the 30-year mean (1943–1972) were calculated for all stations. Although these data were not independent because of their geographic proximity, there was an indication that CHU totals have changed in the past half-century. However, future changes in the CHU totals could not be predicted.     

Ephemeral saline lakes on the Canadian prairies: their classification and management for emergent macrophyte growth

At two ephemeral saline lakes in Saskatchewan, changes in the physical and chemical features of water and sediments at various basin positions were monitored during a wet-dry cycle in 1978 and 1979. Water salinity fluctuated widely in response to changes in water volume and mass of solute in the water. When basins were dry, the soluble salt content of sediments 0–10 cm deep was higher than sediments 50–60 cm deep and sediments in the lake centre were more saline than at the shoreline. Upon reflooding, there was a large immediate decrease in sediment salinity at the 0–10 cm depth, such that this layer was less saline than sediments 50–60 cm deep. Sediments in the lake centre remained more saline than at the shoreline.Classification of lake salinity is necessary to assess the potential of a lake for emergent production. The large variances in ephemeral lake salinity due to water volume changes indicate that classification should be based upon the water volume-salinity cycle of these lakes rather than the salinity of any single water or sediment sample. Water management efforts to lower salinities, to improve these wetlands for emergent growth, should be aimed at reducing the salinity regime of the littoral zone. Flushing, dilution and drying and reflooding techniques are discussed as methods to decrease salinity.     

Insect biodiversity meets ecosystem function: differential effects of habitat and insects on carrion decomposition

1. Ecological processes are maintained in different environments by different species performing similar functional roles. Yet, little is known about the role of the environment in shaping insect biodiversity associated with a process that is ephemeral and patchy. 2. In this study, the mass loss of carrion in response to contrasting habitat types (grassland or tree) was quantified experimentally, as well as the presence, diversity and composition of insect assemblages. Differences in insect assemblages between these two habitats were also examined. 3. It was found that the presence of insects led to a doubling in mass loss, but that grassland or tree habitat type had no effect on this process. By contrast, habitat type had a significant effect on the composition of generalist ant and beetle assemblages, but not on specialist fly assemblages. Given the colonisation of insects, carrion mass loss was negatively associated with increasing evenness of fly assemblages and increasing ant abundance. Variation in fly assemblage composition was also found to correlate with variation in carrion mass loss. 4. This study highlights the major role of habitat type in shaping the composition of generalist insects at carrion, but the minor role in affecting specialist and highly vagile insects. This complements the authors' findings that insect colonisation of carrion was critical to accelerated mass loss, and that fly assemblages were responsible for variation in this process, regardless of habitat. The present study sheds new light on the contribution of insect biodiversity to decomposition in variable environments, with consequences for carrion food webs and nutrient cycling.     

不同管理模式对农田生态系统服务的影响模拟研究——以太湖流域为例

高强度的农业生产给生态环境带来诸多负面影响,如何权衡农田生态系统服务是农业可持续发展面临的重要问题之一。本文以太湖流域稻麦轮作农田生态系统为研究对象,利用基于0—10cm土壤温度、10—20cm土壤温度、水稻生物量和小麦生物量等为目标函数的PEST软件校准APSIM模型,遴选三类重要生态系统服务——粮食供给(粮食产量)、水质调节(氮流失)和气候调节(N_2O排放、固碳-土壤有机碳),针对不同秸秆还田(无秸秆还田、稻秆还田麦秆不还田、麦秆还田稻秆不还田、稻麦秆全还田)和施肥模式(0、-5%,-10%,-20%)等设定16种情景模拟1986—2015年太湖流域生态系统服务变化趋势,利用自组织映射法(SOM)分析其权衡协同关系变化,以期为农田生态系统管理提供科学依据。结果表明:(1)相对秸秆还田,粮食产量、N_2O排放、氮流失和土壤有机碳受施肥影响更为显著,均随施肥量减少而下降;(2)不同管理模式对固碳影响较弱,对N_2O排放和水质调节影响明显,稻麦秆全还田且减量施肥5%、10%或20%情景对N_2O排放抑制最为有效,减排量均超过30%,氮流失量减量大于7%;(3)粮食供给与固碳、N_2O排放均存在显著的协同关系,粮食供给与水质调节、固碳与水质调节、水质调节与N_2O排放呈显著权衡关系,固碳与N_2O排放呈弱权衡关系;(4)基于N_2O排放量和氮流失量均低于基准模拟且粮食单位产量减少低于5%的情景下,无秸秆还田且减量施肥5%(S0_F1)和稻麦秆全还田且减量施肥5%(S3_F1)两种模式相对有利于整体提升太湖流域农田生态生态系统服务。此外,APSIM模型有待更多的野外监测数据进一步校准改进以提高模型率定精度,同时需扩展不同模式影响下太湖流域农田生态系统服务综合效应评估,以获取更加科学、合理的优化模式与途径。     

Pharmacoanthropology: outline, problems, and the nature of case histories

Prerequisites for the evaluation of interethnic differences in response to drugs and toxicants are, first, the understanding of population characteristics in social and genetic terms, and second, the development and use of methods suitable for the pharmacological investigation of fair numbers of subjects. The term pharmacoanthropology is proposed to indicate an appreciation of the difficulties in assessing the causes of quantitative differences between populations, and to emphasize the medical and biological (rather than social or economical) nature of the enquiry. A few case histories are sketched to illustrate the scope of the subject. The classical cases of balanced polymorphism include, for instance, acetylation polymorphism, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, and sickle cell anemia. Interethnic differences in alcohol response exemplify a consequence of gross but unexplained differences in gene frequencies for two enzymes, i.e., alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases. There may be incidental associations of drug response with blood groups, HLA types, or other traits that differ between populations. Interethnic differences in the predominant nature of essential hypertension appear to illustrate an interaction between diet and genetic constitution, and the resulting patterns of pathology may cause differences in drug response. Clarification of scope and nature of interethnic differences will require many future investigations.     

Characterizing ecosystem-level consequences of biological invasions: the role of ecosystem engineers

Invasions by exotic species represent both threats to ecosystems as well as opportunities to learn more about them. Among the invaders that will have the largest impacts are those that directly modify ecosystems and thus have cascading effects for resident biota. Exotics can affect ecosystems by altering system-level flows, availability, or quality of nutrients, food, and physical resources (e.g. living space, water, heat or light). The invader-mediated control of physical resources, typically achieved through the modification of habitats, has received limited attention in invasion biology. This reflects a general trend in ecology, and only recently has the concept of ecosystem engineering been developed to account for the role of species that shape habitats. Plants and animals in terrestrial and aquatic systems can both create and destroy structure. When introduced into ecosystems, these exotic engineers cause physical state changes with effects that ramify throughout the system. Although the consequences of these modifications are varied and complex, insight gained from general ecological principles offers an opportunity to predict what invaders will do upon their integration into systems. Examples from the literature suggest that introduced ecosystem engineers that increase habitat complexity or heterogeneity tend to cause abundances and/or species richness to rise, while those that decrease complexity tend to have the reverse effect. In assessing such patterns, however, it is critical to also consider spatial scales and the life habits of resident organisms. In addition to providing predictive power, recognition of engineering as a major means by which invasive species affect ecosystems provides a unifying theme for invasion biology and offers a chance to consider more fully the general role of species in ecosystems.