Primate taxonomy: Species and conservation

Primatology as a discrete branch of science involving the study of primate behavior and ecology took off in the 1960s after discovery of the importance of primates as models for biomedical research and the realization that primates provide insights into the evolutionary history of humans. Osman Hill's unfortunately incomplete monograph series on the comparative anatomy and taxonomy of the primates¹ and the Napiers' 1967 A Handbook of Living Primates² recorded the world's view of primate diversity at this time. This taxonomy remained the baseline for nearly three decades, with the diversity of each genus being represented by some species, but extensively as subspecies.     

A Novel Widespread Cryptic Species and Phylogeographic Patterns within Several Giant Clam Species (Cardiidae: Tridacna) from the Indo-Pacific Ocean

Giant clams (genus Tridacna) are iconic coral reef animals of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, easily recognizable by their massive shells and vibrantly colored mantle tissue. Most Tridacna species are listed by CITES and the IUCN Redlist, as their populations have been extensively harvested and depleted in many regions. Here, we survey Tridacna crocea and Tridacna maxima from the eastern Indian and western Pacific Oceans for mitochondrial (COI and 16S) and nuclear (ITS) sequence variation and consolidate these data with previous published results using phylogenetic analyses. We find deep intraspecific differentiation within both T. crocea and T. maxima. In T. crocea we describe a previously undocumented phylogeographic division to the east of Cenderawasih Bay (northwest New Guinea), whereas for T. maxima the previously described, distinctive lineage of Cenderawasih Bay can be seen to also typify western Pacific populations. Furthermore, we find an undescribed, monophyletic group that is evolutionarily distinct from named Tridacna species at both mitochondrial and nuclear loci. This cryptic taxon is geographically widespread with a range extent that minimally includes much of the central Indo-Pacific region. Our results reinforce the emerging paradigm that cryptic species are common among marine invertebrates, even for conspicuous and culturally significant taxa. Additionally, our results add to identified locations of genetic differentiation across the central Indo-Pacific and highlight how phylogeographic patterns may differ even between closely related and co-distributed species.     

5种常见水土保持树种的气体交换特性研究

为了了解水土保持树种的气体交换特性,对无患子(Sapindus mukorossi)、南酸枣(Choerospondias axillaris)、香樟(Cinnamomum camphora)、秃瓣杜英(Elaeocarpus glabripetalus)和毛竹(Phyllostachys edulis)等常见树种的光合蒸腾特性进行研究。结果表明,香樟、无患子、南酸枣和毛竹的净光合速率(Pn)日变化曲线呈双峰型,有明显的"光合午休"现象;秃瓣杜英的Pn日变化曲线则呈单峰型,未出现"光合午休"现象。5种树种的Pn以香樟毛竹无患子南酸枣秃瓣杜英;蒸腾速率(Tr)以香樟无患子毛竹南酸枣秃瓣杜英;水分利用效率(WUE)以秃瓣杜英毛竹南酸枣无患子香樟。单因素方差分析表明:不同树种间的Tr、气孔导度(Gs)和WUE存在显著差异,而Pn和胞间CO2浓度(Ci)的差异不显著。相关性分析表明,Pn与Tr、Gs和光合有效辐射(PAR)呈正相关关系;Tr与Gs呈正相关关系,与WUE呈负相关关系;Gs与WUE呈负相关关系;Ci与PAR和空气CO2浓度(Ta)呈负相关关系。香樟和无患子的Tr相对较大,而WUE较低,在养护过程应加强浇水及遮阴以降低其水分蒸腾的速率;秃瓣杜英、南酸枣和毛竹的Tr相对较低,而WUE相对较高,能够科学地利用土壤水分,可适应较干燥的外界环境。     

Conservation,management, and restoration of coral reefs

The 8th International Conference on Coelenterate Biology (ICCB 8) was held in Eilat, Israel from December 1st to 5th 2013. The conference included 15 sessions, one of which discussed the latest information on the conservation, management, and restoration of Coelenterata in different parts of the world. A total of 16 oral presentations and 5 posters were presented in this session. Of these 21 papers, 11 were related to conservation issues, 7 described management, and 3 discussed restoration. This session provided insights on the current conservation, management, and restoration of coelenterates in different parts of the world.     

云南野生稻资源及其保护

云南野生稻生态类型丰富,且具有抗白叶枯病、抗稻瘟病、耐旱、耐寒等栽培稻不具有或已经消失的遗传基因,是水稻品种改良的优良基因库。然而,随着人类社会经济活动对生态环境影响的加剧,这一宝贵的战略性生物资源正面临着快速消失的危险。为了加强云南野生稻资源的保护,近年来,我们对云南野生稻资源开展了原生境保护(物理隔离方式和主流化方式)及非原生境保护(种质库、种质圃、细胞库和DNA库)等保护技术研究,明确了各种保护方法的优缺点和适用性,保护了云南野生稻的多样性和丰富度,为改良栽培稻储备了丰富的基因源。     

Does Species Range and Rarity Affect Population Genetics? A Case Study of Four Graptophyllum Species from Queensland,Australia

There are four species of Graptophyllum (Acanthaceae) in Australia which span a gradient in rarity and conservation status from the most endangered, Graptophyllum reticulatum (endangered), to G. ilicifolium (vulnerable), to G. excelsum (rare), to the least endangered G. spinigerum (widespread). Graptophyllum reticulatum and G. ilicifolium are each only known from three locations. All species were found to have quite high levels of genetic diversity (H_e, A, A_p, P) and there was no significant difference among species in genetic diversity ( P > 0.05), thus, genetic diversity was unrelated to conservation status or species geographic range. All species had high allelic fixation values ( F  ), indicating that populations were effectively inbred regardless of conservation status and geographic range. The genetic diversity among populations (F_ST) was not related to rarity and contrasted among the most restricted species, where diversity among populations was twice as high among G. reticulatum populations (F_ST, 0.22) compared with among G. ilicifolium populations (F_ST, 0.11).     

A Household Perspective for Biodiversity Conservation

Abstract: Many researchers have implicated human population density in species endangerment, but these correlative studies do not demonstrate causality. We propose that hypotheses implicating human population density in wildlife endangerment at global and national scales owe their public and academic currency as thoroughly to inductive reasoning and repetition as to scientific experimentation. It follows that alternative research hypotheses generated from the same facts should provide equally tenable results. Household density provides such an alternative hypothesis and is growing faster than human population density. We used linear multiple regression models to demonstrate that household density provides a viable alternative statistical hypothesis to human population density for explaining species endangerment (household model, r² = 0.85; population model, r² = 0.84). We then suggest adopting a household perspective for biodiversity conservation because 1) social norms and practices render a household approach to conservation more pragmatic than a human population perspective and 2) shifting the focus toward households could facilitate movement from a human-versus-nature ethic to a humans-situated-within-nature ethic (e.g., a land ethic). Wildlife managers and researchers concerned about the negative influence humans have on biodiversity should consider grounding research, theory, and policy decisions in the dynamics of human households as an alternative to human population.     

Pharmaceutical Compounds and Ecosystem Function: An Emerging Research Challenge for Aquatic Ecologists

The number of anthropogenic compounds that occur in aquatic ecosystems today is in the thousands, many at trace concentrations. One group of compounds that has captured the interest of both the scientific community and the general public is pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), for example, hormones, chemotherapy drugs, antihistamines, stimulants, antimicrobials and various cosmetic additives. Toxicology of some PPCPs is currently understood, but their effect on ecological structure and function of aquatic ecosystems is largely unknown. We review sources and fates of these compounds in aquatic ecosystems and discuss how methods developed to study aquatic ecosystem ecology can contribute to our understanding of the influence of PPCPs on aquatic ecosystems. We argue that aquatic ecology has a well-developed tool kit for measuring the transformation, fate, and transport of solutes using assays and experiments and that these methods could be employed to investigate how PPCPs impact ecological function. We discuss the details of these approaches and conclude that application of existing ecological methods to the study of this issue could substantially improve our understanding of the effect of these compounds in aquatic ecosystems.     

物种濒危的机制与保护对策

本文以生物多样性和保护生物学的若干基础理论为依据,分析了物种濒危的现状,论述了濒危物种的概念和特征、易于濒危和灭绝的类型,阐明了物种濒危的机制,并由此提出了濒危物种种质资源的保护对策。     

保护行为学: 正在兴起的保护生物学分支学科

过去的30年里, 人们利用动物行为的进化生物学方法来解决保护实践中遇到的问题, 行为学、行为生态学与保护生物学相结合, 产生了保护生物学的一个新分支学科--保护行为学。保护行为学的研究目的是: 从物种保护实践中发现环境对动物行为的影响以及行为的生态适应性, 并把动物行为学和行为生态学理论应用到物种保护实践中, 从而促进物种保护工作。目前全球有10%的物种濒临灭绝, 生物多样性保护日趋紧迫, 保护行为学的诞生为行为学和保护生物学研究带来了新的机遇, 也表明行为学家和保护生物学家正在担负起挽救濒危物种的使命。不久的将来, 保护行为学及其相关学科将更加繁荣。     

Inferences from Common Species Communities for Selecting Conservation Areas

We aimed at identifying probabilistic areas of high biodiversity value over a large spatial scale, e.g., an entire country (France) within the temperate region, that could work as valuable conservation areas for both rare and common species. We aimed at identifying areas where four measures on bird community overpass a selected threshold value, by using probability interpolation models. The four variables considered were the rare species number, and three measures related to common bird community: relative abundance, estimated species richness and composition originality. For the latter, we developed an indicator that discriminates original from more ordinary compositions of common bird communities, accounting for the number of representatives in each species. This indicator was positively correlated to rare breeding species number, so that original composition of common bird communities allows us to identify areas also supporting the rarest species. Areas with high probabilities of two indicators reaching their threshold values represented 2.9% of continental France. Most double-indicator areas were those with high species richness and high relative abundance, then with original communities and high rare species number. The originality indicator was revealed valuable to identify the most suitable areas that could ensure the preservation of both rare and common species, at a national scale. By preserving sites supporting original common bird communities, conservationists would ensure the protection of rare and common species.     

青羊湖林场不同林分物种多样性与水源涵养能力的研究

通过群落调查和林下土壤及枯落物特性的分析,研究了青羊湖林场南酸枣（Choerospondias axillaris）林、未抚育马尾松（Pinus massoniana）林、抚育马尾松林、马尾松-南酸枣混交林4种林分的物种多样性及水源涵养能力。结果表明：（1）4种林分共有维管束植物135种,隶属58科97属,其中南酸枣林物种相对较丰富(88种),混交林次之(76种),抚育马尾松林较少(64种),未抚育马尾松林则相对最少(55种);（2）林分类型对物种多样性有重要影响,南酸枣林和混交林草本物种多样性较两种针叶林高,而灌木物种多样性则较低;（3）DCA排序结果显示,南酸枣林和混交林物种相似性程度较高,两种马尾松林与南酸枣林、混交林差异明显;（4）林分类型对水源涵养能力有重要影响,相比两种马尾松林,南酸枣林和混交林的林下枯落物蓄积量分别降低10.1%和15.2%,最大持水量降低34.1%和44.7%,而且0～10 cm土壤容重降低14.7%和7.4%,10～20 cm土壤容重降低14.1%和4.0%,20～30 cm土壤容重降低8.7%和4.9%,但总储水量增加15.8%和4.5%,即南酸枣林和混交林具有较高的水源涵养能力。研究认为,生态抚育增加了马尾松林的水源涵养能力。     

两种濒危水韭植物迁地保护居群的基因流动态及回归重建保育遗传管理策略

采用微卫星分子标记对中华水韭（Isoetessinensis）安徽休宁、浙江建德和东方水韭（I.orientalis）浙江松阳三个孑遗居群的迁地保护居群开展了遗传多样性检测与遗传结构分析。7对多态性微卫星引物在36个迁地保护亚居群的720个样本中共检测到59个等位基因,每位点平均等位基因数（A）为8·43。迁地保护亚居群均维持很高的遗传多样性,多态信息含量（PIC）平均为0·707。迁地保护亚居群间遗传分化较低,遗传分化系数GST仅为0·070,居群间具有较大基因流（Nm=3·59）。单因素方差分析发现水韭孢子或孢子体在沿主要水流方向上的长距离传播能力要强于弱水流方向上的短距离传播能力,水流动态对水韭植物的基因流有重要影响。这与UPGMA聚类分析中迁地保护亚居群按邻近位置或水流相通程度优先聚类的结果相一致,水流所带动的强大基因流导致了不同孑遗居群来源的迁地保护亚居群间的遗传混杂。建议在开展水韭植物的迁地保护或回归自然重建时,对具有地方适应分化或者显著性进化的水韭植物居群应相互隔离而不宜配置在一起,以避免远交衰退的遗传风险。     

Rarity and genetic diversity in Indo-Pacific Acropora corals

Among various potential consequences of rarity is genetic erosion. Neutral genetic theory predicts that rare species will have lower genetic diversity than common species. To examine the association between genetic diversity and rarity, variation at eight DNA microsatellite markers was documented for 14 Acropora species that display different patterns of distribution and abundance in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Our results show that the relationship between rarity and genetic diversity is not a positive linear association because, contrary to expectations, some rare species are genetically diverse and some populations of common species are genetically depleted. Our data suggest that inbreeding is the most likely mechanism of genetic depletion in both rare and common corals, and that hybridization is the most likely explanation for higher than expected levels of genetic diversity in rare species. A significant hypothesis generated from our study with direct conservation implications is that as a group, Acropora corals have lower genetic diversity at neutral microsatellite loci than may be expected from their taxonomic diversity, and this may suggest a heightened susceptibility to environmental change. This hypothesis requires validation based on genetic diversity estimates derived from a large portion of the genome.     

海龟是海洋保护理想的旗舰物种

旗舰物种的“明星效应”对生物多样性保护和国家公园建设具有很好的推动作用。我国对海洋保护高度重视,选择理想的代表物种作为旗舰物种,对海洋保护具有重要的推动作用。国家一级重点保护野生动物海龟是大型的海洋爬行动物和海洋活化石物种,对海洋生物多样性和生态系统的平衡稳定具有重要作用;海龟的独特外形特征使其具有很高的识别度,憨态可掬的形象和特殊的生活史使其充满魅力;海龟在我国被利用的历史悠久,具有很高的文化价值;海龟在沿海地区可遇见性和可接触性高,与人类有很好的关系。综上所述,本文认为海龟是海洋保护理想的旗舰物种。     

First Report of Chytridiomycosis in a Dying Toad (Anura: Bufonidae) from Cuba: A New Conservation Challenge for the Island

Infection by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was detected in a male Bufo longinasus dunni, a small toad endemic to central Cuba. The individual was severely infected and in decaying condition. Sections of the skin were examined through standard histological procedures. Several stages of the fungus were confirmed and are illustrated in this contribution. Implications for amphibian conservation in Cuba are discussed.     

三种兰科植物的保护遗传学研究初探

采用随机扩增多态 DNA(RAPD)分析研究了中国3种珍稀濒危兰科植物硬叶兜兰(Paphiopedilum micranthum Tang et Wang)、麻栗坡兜兰(P. malipoense S.C.Chen et Tsi)和独花兰(Changnienia amoena Chien)的遗传多样性与群体遗传结构.12个RAPD引物在2种兜兰中共扩增出131条带.对4个硬叶兜兰群体的检测表明其物种水平的多态条带百分率(PPB)为 71.6%,Nei 的基因多样度(h)为 0.217 1,Shannon多样性指数 (I) 为 0.330 1;4个群体的平均多样性水平为 PPB = 45.2%,h = 0.145 7,I = 0.220 4,低于远交兰花的平均水平.在总遗传变异中,群体间遗传变异占20.31%,略高于远交物种的平均水平.在物种水平上,麻栗坡兜兰的PPB为49.5%,h为0.117 4,I为0.176 4,均大大低于硬叶兜兰.对11个独花兰群体采用16个RAPD引物共扩增出119条带.物种水平PPB=76.5%,h=0.194 1,I=0.305 8;在群体水平上,上述3个指标的平均值则分别为37.2%、0.119 7和0.181 0,均低于远交兰花的平均水平.群体间的遗传变异占45.27%,遗传分化明显高于远交物种的平均水平.导致3个物种遗传多样性偏低而群体间遗传分化较高的主要原因在于人为的过度采挖和生境的片断化.研究结果为兰花保护策略和措施的制定提供了理论基础.     

Species richness, rarity and endemicity of European mammals: a biogeographical approach

This paper investigates the distribution of species richness, rarity and endemicity of European land mammals (bats and introduced species excluded). The highest level of species richness was in Central Europe, while Southern areas had the highest rarity and endemicity scores. The distribution of richness was affected by the location of sampling points in islands and peninsulas. After excluding these sampling points, richness continued to decrease Westward suggesting the existence of a large-scale peninsular effect on mammal distribution. These patterns of continental distribution of richness, rarity and endemicity could be the result of the distribution of refuge areas in the southern Mediterranean peninsulas, and the Pleistocene advances and retreats of mammals throughout the Western Palearctic. Thus, European mammal distribution can be interpreted on the basis of two different patterns of abundance distribution in which Palearctic species reduce their abundance from central-Europe outwards, while endemic, rare species show a similar depletion in the North. It should be useful to evaluate the role of the different regions in Europe in conserving the demographic interactions between central and peripheral populations of mammal species. Given the restricted distribution and potential small size of population, these endemic species are most likely to be susceptible to anthropogenic environmental degradation.     

Translocations: Providing Outcomes for Wildlife, Resource Managers, Scientists, and the Human Community

The World Conservation Union (1987) defines a translocation as a release of animals with the intention of establishing, reestablishing, or augmenting an existing population. Despite frequent use as a tool for the management of threatened and endangered wildlife, the full benefits of translocations often go unrealized. In this article, I demonstrate how translocations can achieve outputs for conservation management, conservation science, and the wider human community, using North Island (NI) Saddleback or Tieke ( Philesturnus rufusater ) as an illustrative example. From a conservation management perspective, NI Saddleback have been salvaged from a relic population of less than 500 birds on 484-ha Hen Island to a metapopulation of approximately 6,000 birds on 13 offshore islands and at two mainland New Zealand sites. These translocations have reduced the risk of global extinction for this species and helped restore the ecosystems involved. All these translocations have occurred in the past 42 years from known source populations and with known numbers of birds released. The resulting replicated serial population bottlenecks provide numerous scientific opportunities for conservation and biological research. Although the first Saddleback translocations were to reserves closed to the public, subsequent translocations have been to open reserves, providing the wider human community with an opportunity to see and be actively involved in the management of a threatened endemic species. This has raised the profile of both NI Saddleback and other species and has provided wider community conservation benefits. These three outputs illustrate the value of translocations for resource management and conservation science and for increasing community interest, participation, and investment in biological conservation.