Environmental constraints on the foraging behaviour of a dwarf antelope (Madoqua kirkii)

Dik-diks (Madoqua sp.) inhabit semi-arid regions and experience very different conditions of food availability and quality between wet and dry seasons. By comparing the behaviour of dik-diks between these two seasons, we identified environmental constraints affecting their feeding strategies. In both seasons foraging time was limited by high mid day temperatures. In the wet season a high intake rate compensates for the loss in foraging time, but in the dry season water and protein become limiting. To meet minimum daily water requirements in the dry season dik-diks fed on plant species that they avoided during the wet season. Analysis at the plant species level showed higher species selectivity in the wet season than in the dry season. In a multiple regression analysis food species preferences were best explained by relative abundance and water content in the dry season, and by dry matter content in the wet season. In the wet season the daily dry-matter intake of dik-diks in the field was only about 10% higher than the theoretically predicted minimum for a ruminant of this body weight, while protein and water intake were about 3 times as high. This suggests that the most limiting dietary component in the wet season is energy. In the dry season the daily intake of all dietary components is lower than the theoretical minimum required, and also lower than the values suggested by laboratory studies of dik-diks. This dry season deficit is presumably met from body reserves. Dry season water intake was approximately 30% of the intake observed in laboratory studies indicating that dikdiks are even better adapted to arid conditions than suggested by physiological experiments.     

Effects of wet and dry seasons on the aquatic bacterial community structure of the Three Gorges Reservoir

This study investigated effects of wet and dry seasons on the bacterial community structure of the Three Gorges Reservoir by using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of the PCR-amplified bacterial 16S rRNA gene. Bacterial diversity, as determined by the Shannon index, the Simpson’s index, and the Richness, dramatically changed in between the dry and wet seasons. The changes in the diversity and relative abundance of microbial populations among the five sites during the wet season have become more marked than those observed during the dry season. Furthermore, cluster analysis also showed these changes. The phylogenetic analysis indicated that Betaproteobacteria is the dominant population, followed by Actinobacterium, in both the wet season and dry season. The water quality parameters were quite stable at all five sites during the same season but noticeably varied from season to season. Canonical correspondence analysis also indicated that the changes in the bacterial community composition were primarily correlated with the variations in temperature, transparency, and the concentrations of NH₄ ⁺-N. Slight changes in bacterial community composition among the five sites during the dry season were correlated with different environments. However, during the wet season, major changes were correlated not only with environments, but also it may be associated with the bacterial populations from the surrounding areas and tributaries of the Three Gorges Reservoir.     

Effects of changes in the timing and duration of the wet season on the germination of the soil seed bank of a seeder-dominated Mediterranean shrubland

In seasonal climates, rainfall patterns are highly variable across years, and can control seed bank dependent regeneration. Here we asked how changing the timing and duration of the wet season would affect the germination of the soil seed bank of a 14-year-old seeder-dominated shrubland. Soil samples, subjected or not to a heat shock, simulating fire, were set to germinate in a chamber whose conditions (temperature and photoperiod) were successively changed to simulate autumn, winter, and spring. Irrigation was implemented to produce three wet season treatments, varying its timing and duration: long (14?weeks of irrigation, during autumn, winter, and spring), medium (8?weeks, late autumn to early spring) and short (4?weeks in winter). Wet season treatments significantly affected germination of shrubs and herbs, as well as species richness and diversity, whereby the later and shorter the season, the lower these variables. Dicots were more sensitive to the treatments than monocots. The timing of the wet season was also important, as similar significant differences were found when only the first 4 weeks of each simulated wet season treatment were considered; the later the season, the lower the germination and richness. Heating the soil generally increased germination but few significant effects were found. We document that a change in the timing and/or duration of the wet season can significantly affect soil seed bank germination. We discuss these results in a context of shifting rainfall patterns under climate change.     

长江中下游岸带(宜昌-铜陵段)湿生植物的群落构建机制研究

沿长江中下游（宜昌-铜陵段）13座城市共37个位点,分别于丰水期和枯水期对岸带的湿生植物进行调查,从物种和系统发育2个维度研究群落的构建机制,并结合环境和空间因子探讨其驱动因素。结果显示：（1）丰水期湿生植物群落的α多样性高于枯水期,且丰水期α多样性主要与水分条件呈正相关,而枯水期则主要与温度和土壤总氮含量有关。（2）丰水期的系统发育结构指数呈聚集趋势,暗示生境过滤起着主导作用,而枯水期的NRI（net relatedness index）和NTI（nearest taxon index）呈不同趋势,暗示存在近期的群落分化。（3）群落的α多样性在物种层面和系统发育层面存在显著关联性,其多样性水平可在一定程度上互为表征。（4）长江中下游沿岸湿生植物群落的构建机制在不同时期存在差异,丰水期的群落构建是环境筛选和扩散限制共同作用的结果,且以环境筛选作用占主导,而枯水期的群落构建仅在物种层面受一定程度环境筛选作用的影响。（5）大生境的温度变化、微生境的土壤水分和养分条件是影响长江中下游岸带湿生植物群落差异的主要驱动因素。该研究结果可为长江中下游岸带湿地生态系统的管理和保护提供科学支持。     

Observations on the limnology and primary production of a small man-made lake in the West African savanna

1. The results of limnological studies on a small, 35-ha, triangular man-made lake and a small adjacent fish pond in the coastal savanna of Ghana are described. 2. The lake, which has a renewal time of approximately 0.96 years, is subject to large, predictable seasonal changes. Water volume and surface area rapidly reach maximum values in the wet season from April to June despite the low runoff values which average only 1.2% of the precipitation. Minimum values occur in the dry season when up to 76% of the lake area may be exposed. Most of the water is lost by evaporation which may amount to 193 cm annually. 3. The annual cycle in water temperature follows that in solar radiation with peaks towards the end of the dry season in March to April and deep troughs in the wet season from April to June. During the dry season the water column is characterized by greater stability, a higher degree of stratification, and a much higher amplitude of diurnal temperature change (4-5°C) than in the wet season (1°C). Isothermal conditions tend to be approached nocturnally and even during the day in the wet season. 4. The ionic content of the water is low and dominated by bicarbonate, sodium, silica and iron. During the wet season flood water results in a decline in conductivity from 214 to 30 μmhos/cm², a decrease in pH and transparency, and an increase in oxidizable organic material. Except for the conductivity these values return to normal in about 6 weeks as a result of rapid decomposition of allochthonous materials. 5. The oxygen pulse is strong and photosynthetic activity by phytoplankton high during the dry season whereas in the wet season the converse is true. As a result of the low concentration of organic carbon (0.10–0.35%) in the sediments their oxygen demands are low. Consequently, dissolved oxygen values near the sediment are relatively high and oxygen stratification poorly-developed. Most of the organic carbon appears to be recycled in the water column rather than in the sediments as is generally the case in tropical ecosystems. 6. Rooted vegetation became permanently established in the fish pond but not i n the lake itself. Emergent and floating vegetation which grows profusely in the draw-down area in the wet season is for the most part exported from the system by wind and biological agencies and, therefore, contributes little to the energy and mineral budgets of the lake. Primary production in the water column is mainly by Myxophyceae and Bacillariophyceae and is low during the dry season (1.35 gC/m²/day) and very low in the wet season. Possible reasons for the low level of primary production are discussed.     

Food selection and the timing of breeding of the Blue-and-White Swallow Notiochelidon cyanoleuca in Venezuela

The breeding biology of the Blue-and-White Swallow in Mérida, Venezuela, was studied in relation to prey availability. Breeding occurred at the end of the dry season and beginning of the wet season. The diet consisted mainly of Hymenoptera but Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and Diptera were also important prey. Wet or cloudy weather was associated with low feeding rates at the nest and with low prey abundance. The adults spent more time gliding and used more aerial feeding stations in cloudy weather. Food abundance was highest in the wet season. Breeding thus occurs at a time when prey availability is increasing but the wet season, with its high probability of bad weather occurring, tends to be avoided.     

Seasonality in foraging behaviour of Constrictotermes cyphergaster (Termitidae, Nasutitermitinae) in the Caatinga of Northeastern Brazil

The foraging activity of Constrictotermes cyphergaster was investigated in the Caatinga of Northeast Brazil. Eight colonies were monitored for seven days, during both dry and wet seasons. Foraging activity occurred in exposed columns at night, generally between 22:00 and 05:00 h. During the wet season, foraging activity was significantly higher, with one bout every 1.6 ± 0.2 days, than the dry season, when foraging bouts were performed every 1.9 ± 0.3 days. Foraging activity throughout the study colonies presented high temporal synchronization. In both seasons, foraging was negatively correlated with air temperature and positively correlated with humidity. The foraging trails were often re-utilized and ranged from 1 to 18.5 meters in length. No difference between seasons in the area potentially utilized by the study colonies was observed. Approximately 51000 individuals participated in the foraging bout during the dry season, whereas some 87000 individuals participated in the foraging bout during the wet season. This corresponds to 43 and 74% of the estimated total nest population for the dry and wet seasons respectively. The average ratio soldiers:workers during foraging was 1:1.2 in the dry season and 1:2 in the wet season. The higher frequency and number of individuals foraging during the wet season in the present study are likely to be a strategy from C. cyphergaster to store energy reserves to be utilized during the dry season. Received 28 November 2005; revised 29 May 2006 and 16 August 2006; accepted 1 September 2006.     

Possible causes of decreasing migratory ungulate populations in an East African savannah after restrictions in their seasonal movements

In many areas in Africa, seasonal movements of migratory ungulates are restricted and their population numbers decline, for example in the Tarangire region, Tanzania. Here, agriculture restricts migration of ungulates to their wet season ranges. We investigated whether low forage quality or supply are possible causes of population decline of wildebeest and zebra when access to these wet season ranges is restricted and migratory herds have to reside in the dry season range year-round. We simulated grazing through a clipping experiment in the dry season range during the wet season. Clipping negatively affected forage supply and had a positive effect on forage quality by increasing proportions of live and leaf biomass as well as nutrient concentrations in the leaves. However, increase in forage quality in the dry season range due to grazing was not as such that requirements of wildebeest during the wet season, when females are lactating, could be met. We conclude that low forage quality in the dry season range during the wet season could cause the decrease in migratory ungulate populations in the Tarangire region. With this study, the necessity of protecting wet season ranges from expanding human activities to safeguard migratory systems is supported.     

Activity pattern of the brown howler monkeyAlouatta fusca,Geoffroy 1812, in a forest fragment of southeastern Brazil

A group of six brown howlers was studied during a year in the Santa Genebra Reserve, a 250ha-forest fragment near the city of Campinas, State of São Paulo, southeastern Brasil. On average, the group rested for 64% of the daylight hours and feeding and moving occupied 18% and 13% of this period, respectively. A greater proportion of time was spent feeding during dry season (24%) than the wet season (15%), and the reverse observed for time spent resting (59% and 69% of the group's daylight hours during dry and wet seasons, respectively). The increase of resting and decrease of feeding during wet season were related to the percentage of leaves in the group's diet, high even during the fruiting season (wet season). However, additional data of other groups are necessary to draw conclusions about the effects of habitat disturbance on this population.     

Reproductive biology of the greater bandicoot rat Bandicota indica （Rodentia： Muridae） in the rice fields of southern Thailand

This study investigated some aspects of the reproductive biology of male and female greater bandicoot rats,Bandicota indica,in southern Thailand from September 2004 to September 2006. In females,body,uterine and preputial gland weights,occurrences of pregnancies and placental scars,and in males,testicalar weights and histology,and sizes of accessory sex glands,were recorded. Pregnancies occurred predominantly,but not exclusively,in the wet season,with a higher incidence pregnancies in the second,than in the first,dry season. Uterine and preputial gland weights tended to be lower in the first,but not the second dry season,with placental scars occurring at all times of year. Males tended to have heavier testes in the wet season but some seminiferous tubules contained sperm even in the dry season. Seminal vesicles,but not prostates and preputial glands,tended to be heavier in animals in the wet season. We conclude that the greater bandieoot rat in southern Thailand shows maximal reproductive activity in the wet season with some reproductive activity,albeit variable from year to year,occurring in the dry season depending upon environmental conditions. This study has also shown that females,as well as males,have large preputial glands,and that males invariably have small testes regardless of the time of year. These observations suggest a similar timing of reproduction,but a different breeding biology and perhaps social organisation,from that of the sympatric ricefield rat,Rattus argentiventer.     

Daily and hourly movement of male desert-dwelling elephants

The daily and hourly movements of eight male desert-dwelling elephants of various ages (12–45 years old) were determined hourly by global positioning system (GPS)/telemetry collars during the wet, cold dry and hot dry seasons of 2006 in northwest Namibia. The average daily movement in the wet season was greater than that observed during either the cold dry or the hot dry seasons. A similar difference was also observed for the movement rates, with the highest average rate of hourly movement recorded during the wet season. The diurnal movements (both distance and rate) were greater than those in the nocturnal hours during the wet season, whilst during the cold dry and hot dry season the reverse was true. The daily cycle of movement also changed seasonally, with greatest movement rates observed during the wet season between 11.00–20.00 hours, during the cold dry season between 14.00–21.00 hours; and between 04.00–11.00 hours during the hot dry season. Periods of decreased movement rates were observed between 09.00–10.00 and 02.00–03.00 hours in the wet season; 03.00–06.00 and 11.00–13.00 hours in the cold dry season; and 01.00–03.00 and 12.00–14.00 hours during the hot dry season.     

Cyanobacteria in the Australian northern savannah detect the difference between intermittent dry season and wet season rain

This research was conducted in the northern Australian savannah at Boodjamulla National Park where cyanobacterial crusts dominate the soil and rock surfaces in between tussock grasses. It is widely accepted that terrestrial cyanobacteria are drought tolerant and rapidly recommence photosynthesis once moisture is available. Initial tests at the research site indicated that cyanobacteria did not respond to rehydration during the dry season, even after several days. We hypothesised that resurrection had not taken place and new growth from survival cells had to take place during the follow-up wet season. To further understand the desiccation–resurrection processes we tested photosystem II (PSII) responses both during the dry and wet seasons. In the 2009 dry season after 125 days without rain, crust samples were regularly rehydrated. Over the 10 day trial cyanobacteria did not recover PSII activity or CO₂-uptake. Although new colonies of Nostoc grew other cyanobacteria remained inactive, even though liverworts and lichens in the same crusts had responded within 24 h. Dry season cyanobacterial crusts were collected in 2010 then reintroduced into their natural environment and exposed to rainfall during the 2011 wet season. Within 24 h PSII in cyanobacteria from a range of crust types had resurrected and CO₂-uptake was verified, although different crust types responded at significantly different rates. These are the first studies that have demonstrated that PSII does not respond to rainfall during the dry season and cyanobacterial function appears controlled by other environmental conditions. It is likely that mass extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production during the wet season, once dry, protects cyanobacteria from premature resurrection in the dry season. We propose that EPS regulates moisture penetration, thus the resurrection of PSII at the onset of the wet season, at which time moisture and humidity alters the rheological properties of EPS permitting rehydration.     

Validation of daily surface water depth model of the Greater Everglades based on real-time stage monitoring and aerial ground elevation survey

As part of the Everglades Depth Estimation Network (EDEN) project, this paper describes validation of raster-based daily surface water depth models of the Greater Everglades in Florida developed using real-time stage data and elevation data obtained from a survey with an aerial height finder. Daily median stage data obtained at over 200 locations were interpolated using the multiquadric radial basis function. Surface water depth was obtained by subtracting a digital elevation model from the interpolated stage raster. The model was validated with 751 independent field measurements of surface water depth between 1999 and 2004. Correlations between prediction error and both density of the monitoring gages and distance from a major linear geographic feature, such as a canal, were weak, suggesting that the error does not depend on these features. South Florida has distinct dry and wet seasons and the study area is dominated by sawgrass and wet prairie. Seasonality and ground vegetation type significantly affect prediction error. Correlation between observed and predicted water depth was high for all combination of season and vegetation type (0.83–0.96). Model validation using an equivalence test provided evidence of equivalence between predicted and observed water depths in dry season prairie-dominated and wet season sawgrass-dominated areas with the strict test and in dry season sawgrass-dominated areas with the liberal test, but not in wet season prairie-dominated areas. Equivalence between observed and predicted water depth for both dry season sawgrass- and wet season prairie-dominated areas were confirmed with the strict test after further model calibrations using linear regressions.     

基于等级模型的考洲洋石油烃污染状况

通过等级模型的创建,在G IS的支持下,对1999年2月(枯水期)和8月(丰水期)考洲洋表层海水和表层沉积物的石油烃水平进行了综合的分析和评价。枯水期湾内表层海水的石油烃含量为0.036~0.060m g/L,水平为2~3级,已受到一定程度的石油烃污染;丰水期表层海水的石油烃含量均低于0.050m g/L,为1~2级水平,整个水域石油烃污染程度较轻。枯水期湾内表层沉积物石油烃含量的变化范围较大,为16.0×10-6~657.0×10-6(干重),处于1~3级水平,其中湾中部至北部沿岸大部分水域表层沉积物的石油烃水平相对较高,为2~3级水平,表明该片水域表层沉积物已受到一定程度的石油烃污染;丰水期湾内表层沉积物的石油烃污染程度较枯水期轻,整个水域的石油烃含量均低于500.0×10-6(干重),其中除吉隆河口附近水域的含量稍高,为2级水平外,其余绝大部分水域均为1级水平。通过G IS的加权运算,分别将表层海水和表层沉积物的石油烃水平进行综合的分级评价,评价结果显示考洲洋石油烃的综合水平在2个调查季节的变化趋势分别与表层沉积物石油烃的变化趋势极为相似,调查期间整个水域石油烃的综合污染水平较低,为1~2级水平。2个调查航次相比,表层海水和表层沉积物石油烃平均含量均为枯水期>丰水期。而从各个站位石油烃的含量水平来看,除个别站位外,绝大多数站位表层海水和表层沉积物石油烃含量的季节变化趋势均表现为枯水期>丰水期。     

Hematology and serum chemistry of the island spotted skunk on Santa Cruz Island

We determined serum biochemistry and hematologic values for island spotted skunks (Spilogale gracilis amphiala) on Santa Cruz Island (California, USA). Samples were collected from island spotted skunks chemically restrained with ketamine hydrochloride and acepromazine in August 1999 (dry season) and from skunks manually restrained in August 2000 (dry season) and January 2001 (wet season). One parameter, glucose, significantly differed with season, with higher levels during the wet season. Serum chemistry and hematologic profiles suggest that method of restraint (manual or chemical), as well as other methodologic details, may influence blood characteristics in the island spotted skunk.     

Diurnal activity budget of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779) in Chebera Churchura National Park,Ethiopia

One of the fundamental questions in animal ecology concerns the activity pattern of animals and the environmental and intrinsic factors that influence such dynamics. This study tested the hypotheses that activity time budgets of the African buffalo appeared to vary by season and times of day and predicted that buffalo would express unequal proportion of time for different activity patterns during the wet and dry seasons in Chebera Churchura National Park (CCNP). An investigation on the diurnal activity budget of the African buffalo was carried out during the wet and dry seasons of 2012–2014 in the Chebera Churchura National Park, Ethiopia, using focal‐animal sampling method. Buffalo spent a greater proportion of the time in feeding and resting/ruminating activities in both the wet and dry seasons. Feeding and resting (lying down and standing) were the predominant activities (87.14% of the diurnal active period), 48.95% time spent feeding during the dry season and 44.91% during the wet season. There was a significant decrease in feeding and an increase in resting from dry seasons to wet seasons. Daytime grazing and resting periods during the wet season were estimated to be 5.39 h and 4.98 h, respectively. Morning and the late afternoon activity peaks were more pronounced during the dry season than the wet season. Therefore, feeding and resting time was influenced by the time of day and the seasons. But there were no significant difference in time allocation for other activities in both the wet and dry seasons. The study has implications for understanding animal activity budget across species, particularly relationships between temperature and season.     

Effect of Seasonality on the Behavior of an Insectivorous Primate, Tarsius spectrum

The distribution and quality of food resources is generally recognized as the preeminent factor explaining much interspecific and intraspecific variation in the behavior of nonhuman primates. Primates that live in seasonal environments often show predictable responses to fluctuating resources. In order to compensate for the reduction in resource availability, primates variously switch to alternative, poorer quality food sources, increase the amount of time they spend foraging, or increase their daily path length. Some primate species reduce their group size or maximize the group dispersion. I address whether spectral tarsiers (Tarsius spectrum), which are insectivores, modify their behavior in the same ways as frugivores and folivores in response to seasonal or scarce resources. My results indicate that wild spectral tarsiers modify their activity budget in response to seasonal resources. Specifically, during periods of low resource availability, spectral tarsier males and females spent more time traveling and foraging compared to their activity budget during the wet season. Males and females not only increased the amount of time they spent foraging during times of low resource abundance but also modified their foraging behavior. During the wet season, when resource abundance was high, they consumed Orthoptera and Lepidoptera with greater frequency than during the dry season. During the dry season, when resource abundance was low, spectral tarsiers still ate numerous Orthoptera and Lepidoptera, but they also increased consumption of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. Spectral tarsiers were also more likely to be involved in territorial disputes during the dry season than during the wet season. Intragroup encounters decreased in frequency in the dry season versus the frequency of encounters during the wet season.     

Seasonal population and individual niche dynamics in a tetra fish in the Pantanal wetlands

In seasonal tropical regions, rainfall and/or temporary floods during the wet season generally increase the abundance and diversity of food resources to many consumers as compared to the dry season. Therefore, seasonality can affect intraspecific competition and ecological opportunity, which are two important ecological mechanisms underlying population and individual niche variations. Here, we took advantage of the strong seasonality in the Pantanal wetlands to investigate how within‐ and between‐individual diet variations relate to seasonal population niche dynamics of the tetra fish Astyanax lacustris. We quantified dietary niche using gut contents and stable isotopes. Tetras had higher gut fullness and better body condition in the wet season, suggesting that competition is more intense in the dry season. The population niche was broader in the wet season due to an increase in diet divergence between individuals, in spite of potential stronger competition in the dry season. We posit that low ecological opportunity in the dry season limits the diversifying effect of intraspecific competition, constraining population niche expansion. Our results add new insights on how seasonality affects population and individual diets, indicating that intraspecific competition and ecological opportunity interact to determine temporal niche variations in seasonal environments.     

陕北黄土区大气降水同位素特征及其水汽来源

为探究陕北黄土区大气降水氢氧稳定同位素特征及其水汽来源,以陕西省定边县为研究区,于2018—2020年共收集107次降水事件样品,分析了该区降水中δ¹⁸O和δ²H组成特征,并探讨了不同季节的水汽来源。结果表明: 定边氢氧稳定同位素存在明显的季节变化,湿季(6—9月)偏贫化,干季(4—5月、10—11月)偏富集;氘盈余呈现干季高湿季低的特点。当地大气降水线方程为δ²H=7.35δ¹⁸O+4.19 (R²=0.96, P<0.01),斜率和截距均小于全球大气降水线,表明该区域降水受到一定程度的蒸发分馏影响。全年降水同位素组成表现出温度效应,而湿季和干季差异较大,仅干季存在温度效应,湿季降水同位素组成可能受温度和降水量的共同影响。HYSPLIT气团轨迹模型表明,干季水汽主要来自大西洋和极地北冰洋地区,而湿季降水主要来自印度洋和太平洋,同时受到西风带的影响。     

Cathemerality in the mongoose lemur, Eulemur mongoz

Results of a 10 month study of the mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz) at Anjamena are presented. The activity pattern is documented in detail for both wet and dry seasons based on observations conducted over the entire 24 h period. E. mongoz was found to be cathemeral throughout the year but exhibited shifts towards more diurnal activity in the wet season and more nocturnal activity in the dry season. The cathemeral activity pattern in the mongoose lemur appears to be coordinated with sunrise, sunset, and day length and modulated by an inhibitory effect of low nocturnal light intensity in the forest during the wet season, resulting in mainly diurnal activity. Temperature and rainfall may also influence the activity pattern. Few advantages to food-related behavior appear to derive from this activity pattern, although resource accessibility may be enhanced by nocturnal behavior in the dry season, leading to reduction in interspecific competition. Cathemerality may also represent a behavioral thermoregulatory mechanism allowing the mongoose lemur to conserve energy by being active during the cool nights of the dry season. In addition, nocturnal behavior in the dry season probably allows avoidance of predation by raptors at the time of year when least protection is afforded by vegetation.