Biologically-inspired humanoid postural control

This article presents a biologically-inspired framework for humanoid postural control. It complies with the main features of human postural control that are extracted from recent studies. In this article, the human body is abstracted as a single-inverted pendulum jointed with a foot that rests freely on a supporting surface. In particular, disturbances affecting posture are addressed and accommodated within the proposed framework. Among these are external forces and motion of support surface on which the body stands. The main components of this framework are: 1. A state-feedback mechanism for stabilizing the unstable dynamics of the body. 2. A tracking loop for robustly achieving desired voluntary orientations. 3. A feed-forward control primarily for improving the response to voluntary motions. 4. A stand-alone vestibular sensory fusion algorithm for estimating body orientation. 5. An external-disturbance estimator and a corresponding compensation for minimizing the effect of external disturbances. These components are interconnected in a way that qualifies this framework to modularly address the multi-segment body postural control problem. Although no postural stability measure is explicitly incorporated, experiments run on a special-purpose humanoid demonstrate the stability and the performance merits of the presented framework.     

Vestibular postural control model

Current models for physiological components and a posture control experiment conducted with three normal subjects form the basis for a model which seeks to describe quantitatively the control of body sway when only vestibular motion cues are used. Emphasis is placed on delineating the relative functional roles of the linear and the angular acceleration sensors and on modeling the functional interface between these sensors and the initiation of compensatory responses at the ankle joint.The model predicts the form of the postural response to a small sway disturbance; including initial detection of sway, characteristics of the transient correction, and maintenance of stability. The model suggests that postural stability requires a short time constant integration of semicircular canal output. Separation of semicircular canal and utricular otolith function into sway motion detector and static reference sensors respectively is demonstrated.This work was supported by NASA under Grant NGR-22-009-156.     

Vestibular humanoid postural control

Many of our motor activities require stabilization against external disturbances. This especially applies to biped stance since it is inherently unstable. Disturbance compensation is mainly reactive, depending on sensory inputs and real-time sensor fusion. In humans, the vestibular system plays a major role. When there is no visual space reference, vestibular-loss clearly impairs stance stability. Most humanoid robots do not use a vestibular system, but stabilize upright body posture by means of center of pressure (COP) control. We here suggest using in addition a vestibular sensor and present a biologically inspired vestibular sensor along with a human-inspired stance control mechanism. We proceed in two steps. First, in an introductory review part, we report on relevant human sensors and their role in stance control, focusing on own models of transmitter fusion in the vestibular sensor and sensor fusion in stance control. In a second, experimental part, the models are used to construct an artificial vestibular system and to embed it into the stance control of a humanoid. The robot’s performance is investigated using tilts of the support surface. The results are compared to those of humans. Functional significance of the vestibular sensor is highlighted by comparing vestibular-able with vestibular-loss states in robot and humans. We show that a kinematic body-space sensory feedback (vestibular) is advantageous over a kinetic one (force cues) for dynamic body-space balancing. Our embodiment of human sensorimotor control principles into a robot is more than just bionics. It inspired our biological work (neurorobotics: ‘learning by building’, proof of principle, and more). We envisage a future clinical use in the form of hardware-in-the-loop simulations of neurological symptoms for improving diagnosis and therapy and designing medical assistive devices.     

Gravistatic postural control in simpler systems

Most types of human and animal motor behaviour are spatially oriented. Studies of the fish gravity orientation system are proving particularly valuable for understanding the functional organization of this system in higher animals. In particular, the development of in vitro central nervous system preparations with gravity sensory organs that exhibit a 'fictive' space orientation behaviour has led to some important new discoveries.     

Modeling postural control in the lamprey

 A phenomenological model of the mechanism of stabilization of the body orientation during locomotion (dorsal side up) in the lamprey is presented. The mathematical modeling is based on experimental results obtained during investigations of postural control in lampreys using a combined in vivo and robotics approach. The dynamics of the model agree qualitatively with the experimental data. It is shown by computer simulations that postural correction commands from reticulospinal neurons provide information sufficient to stabilize body orientation in the lamprey. The model is based on differences between the effects exerted by the vestibular apparatus on the left and the right side. Received: 16 February 2000 / Accepted in revised form: 29 September 2000     

Comparative neurobiology of postural control

In recent years, studies of nervous mechanisms for the control of body posture have been performed on animal models of different complexity - cat, rabbit, lamprey and the mollusc Clione. These studies have greatly expanded our knowledge of how the control system operates, how the system can change the stabilized body orientation and how the postural functions are distributed within different parts of the CNS. For simpler animal models, the postural network has been analyzed in considerable detail and main cell types and their interactions have been identified.     

Chemical and postural influence on scalene and diaphragmatic activation in humans

The electromyographic activity of the diaphragm (EMGdi) and scalene muscle (EMGsc) was studied in the supine and upright positions, respectively, during hyperoxic progressive hypercapnic rebreathing (HCVR) in five healthy males. End-expiratory esophageal pressure (EEPes) was quantified on a breath-to-breath basis as a reflection of altered end-expiratory lung volume. There was no significant difference in the slopes of EMGdi, expressed as a percentage of maximum at total lung capacity vs. minute volume of ventilation (VI), between the supine and upright positions [0.79 +/- 0.05 (SE) vs. 0.92 +/- 0.17, respectively]. In contrast, the slope of the regression line relating EMGsc to VI was steeper in the upright than in the supine position (0.69 +/- 0.05 vs. 0.35 +/- 0.04, respectively; P less than 0.005). Positive EEPes at comparable VI at the ends of HCVRs were of greater magnitude upright than supine (3.27 +/- 0.68 vs. 4.35 +/- 0.60 cmH2O, respectively, P less than 0.001). We conclude that altering posture has a greater effect on scalene and expiratory muscle activity than on diaphragmatic activity during hypercapnic stimulation.     

Synergistic mixture interactions in detection of perithreshold odors by humans

Laboratory demonstrations of synergistic mixture interactions in human odor perception have been rare. The current study examined perithreshold mixture interactions between maple lactone (ML) and selected carboxylic acids. An air-dilution olfactometer allowed precise stimulus control. Experimenters measured stimulus concentrations in vapor phase using a combination of solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. A probability of detection versus concentration, or a psychometric, functions was measured for pure ML. Psychometric functions were also measured for ML with the addition of fixed, subthreshold concentrations of carboxylic acids. Relative to statistical independence in detection, clear synergy occurred over a range of ML concentrations. To the best of our knowledge, the current results constitute the first clear demonstration of synergy in odor detection by humans from an experiment that combined precise stimulus control, vapor-phase calibration of stimuli, and a clear statistical definition of synergy.     

Mechanography in children: pediatric references in postural control

Objective:To establish pediatric age- and sex-specific references for measuring postural control with a mechanography plate in a single centre, prospective, normative data study.Methods:739 children and adolescents (396 male/343 female) aged 4 to 17 years were studied. Each participant completed the following test sequence three times: Romberg, semi-tandem, tandem, each with eyes open and closed, and a one-leg stand with eyes open, and a single two-legged jump. Normal ranges were determined based on percentile calculations using the LMS method. Results from the two-legged jump were compared to a reference population the single two-legged jump (s2LJ) assessment in 2013.Results:38 different equilibrium parameters calculated were analysed. Of all parameters Path Length, vCoFmean, Equilibrium Score and Sway Angle showed a low variation within the same age group but high dependency on age and were thus chosen for automated balance assessment.Conclusion:Standard values of postural control in healthy children derived from automated balance testing using a mechanography plate were successfully acquired and a subset of parameters for automated balance assessment identified.     

Listening to action-related sentences impairs postural control

According to the mirror neurons data there exist areas in the premotor cortex that are activated both during action perception and action execution. It was hypothesized that posture maintenance would be impaired by simultaneous action perception in concordance with cognitive dissonance theory. A test was conducted during which 23 neurologically normal humans were to maintain their posture erect on the forceplate and to listen to the action-related sentences. Tests of differences and Friedman analysis of variance proved that listening to sentences that describe different actions and movements in the first and the third person impairs postural control in comparison with listening to sentences that describe objects of nature and everyday life.     

Functional and postural lateral preferences in humans: interrelations and life-span age differences

This study aimed to provide data on lateral preferences among older subjects, to analyze age differences, and to determine interrelations between lateral preferences. Four functional preferences (handedness, footedness, eyedness, earedness) and three postural lateral preferences (hand-clasping, arm-folding, leg-crossing) were assessed in 628 Germans (252 men, 376 women) aged between 19 and 90 years. Sex differences, age differences, and associations between lateralities were analyzed applying chi-square tests. Logistic regression analyses considering age, sex, and interactions between variables were applied to analyze combined effects on laterality measures. Right-sided preference for handedness, footedness, eyedness, earedness, and leg-crossing characterized 86.8%, 77.1%, 70.9%, 67.8%, and 56.6%, respectively, of subjects, while a left-sided preference for hand-clasping and arm-folding characterized 56.4% and 60.2%, respectively, of all participants. Results are within the range of other populations. Only footedness differed between the sexes: there were more left-footed men. Older cohorts showed a rightward shift in handedness, eyedness, earedness, and leg-crossing, the opposite for arm-folding. No age-related differences exist in footedness or hand-clasping. Logistic regression models indicate no interaction between age and sex for each laterality measure. The four functional lateralities are significantly interrelated. All also are positively associated with leg-crossing. Conversely, the postural lateralities generally are not correlated, although leg-crossing and arm-folding are, inversely. The observed relationships among lateralities support the hypothesis that handedness, footedness, leg-crossing, and earedness might be aspects of a larger phenotype that is independent of hand-clasping and arm-folding.     

Physiological and circuit mechanisms of postural control

The postural system maintains a specific body orientation and equilibrium during standing and during locomotion in the presence of many destabilizing factors (external and internal). Numerous studies in humans have revealed essential features of the functional organization of this system. Recent studies on different animal models have significantly supplemented human studies. They have greatly expanded our knowledge of how the control system operates, how the postural functions are distributed within different parts of CNS, and how these parts interact with each other to produce postural corrections and adjustments. This review outlines recent advances in the studies of postural control in quadrupeds, with special attention given the neuronal postural mechanisms.     

Postural response characterization of standing humans to multi-directional,predictable and unpredictable perturbations to the arm

When the arm of a standing human is perturbed in an unpredictable direction, postural muscles are activated at latencies as short as 50–110 ms. While the motion of the body clearly progresses in hand-to-leg sequence, there is no systematic muscle activation sequence from the arm to the leg muscles, suggesting that the activation of the muscles is not likely the result of local stretch reflexes. In fact, the lower limb muscles are activated before the upright posture is significantly disturbed. The short-latency activation amplitude and the activation probability are clearly tuned to the direction of the arm perturbation for both rostral and caudal muscles. The effect of central set on the short-latency response has been investigated by manipulating the predictability of the perturbations. Possible underlying neural mechanisms have been discussed.     

Plantar hypoesthesia alters time-to-boundary measures of postural control

Our purpose was to identify the effect of diminished plantar cutaneous sensation on time-to-boundary (TTB) measures of postural control during double and single limb quiet standing. Thirty-two healthy young adults underwent 10 min of ice immersion of the plantar aspect of the feet prior to balance testing. On a different day, the subjects did not receive this intervention prior to testing. A 2 × 2 vision (eyes open, eyes closed) by sensation (control, hypoesthesia) repeated measures design was used to analyze the TTB measures. In double limb stance, there were significant interactions between sensation and vision for the absolute TTB minimum and the mean of TTB minima in the anteroposterior (AP) direction. There was a significant increase in both measures after sensation was diminished with eyes closed compared to the control, but not with eyes open. In single limb stance, the TTB absolute minimum, the mean of TTB minima in the AP direction, and the standard deviation of TTB minima significantly increased with hypoesthesia regardless of vision. No significant differences were found in the medial–lateral (ML) direction for any of the TTB measures in double or single limb stance. Sensory information from the plantar cutaneous receptors appears to be most important in the maintenance of AP postural control.     

Gender affects sympathetic neurovascular control during postural stress

Sympathetic outflow increases during head-up tilt (HUT) to stabilize blood pressure in the presence of decreases in venous return and stroke volume (SV). Otherwise, orthostatic hypotension would develop. Gender differences in orthostatic tolerance have been noted but the mechanisms are still uncertain. More recently, Waters et al. reported in a limited sample, greater susceptibility of women to demonstrate orthostatic intolerance following space flight. Therefore, it is important to understand gender differences in reflex blood pressure regulation. Recently, we reported smaller increments in muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) in healthy women during graded HUT and a non-baroreflex cold pressor test. The purpose of this report is to examine the hypothesis that gender differences in blood pressure control during HUT are related to important variations in MSNA discharge patterns.     

Plantar hypoesthesia alters time-to-boundary measures of postural control

Our purpose was to identify the effect of diminished plantar cutaneous sensation on time-to-boundary (TTB) measures of postural control during double and single limb quiet standing. Thirty-two healthy young adults underwent 10 min of ice immersion of the plantar aspect of the feet prior to balance testing. On a different day, the subjects did not receive this intervention prior to testing. A 2 x 2 vision (eyes open, eyes closed) by sensation (control, hypoesthesia) repeated measures design was used to analyze the TTB measures. In double limb stance, there were significant interactions between sensation and vision for the absolute TTB minimum and the mean of TTB minima in the anteroposterior (AP) direction. There was a significant increase in both measures after sensation was diminished with eyes closed compared to the control, but not with eyes open. In single limb stance, the TTB absolute minimum, the mean of TTB minima in the AP direction, and the standard deviation of TTB minima significantly increased with hypoesthesia regardless of vision. No significant differences were found in the medial-lateral (ML) direction for any of the TTB measures in double or single limb stance. Sensory information from the plantar cutaneous receptors appears to be most important in the maintenance of AP postural control.