Phylogenetic relationships within a patagonian clade of reptiles (Liolaemidae: Phymaturus) based on DNA sequences and morphology

Phymaturus is a clade of lizards that occurs at moderate to high elevations in western Argentina and the adjacent central region of Chile, as well as in various volcanic plateaus of the Patagonian region of Argentina. This genus had previously been divided into two groups: the patagonicus and the palluma groups. In this study, we analyzed relationships within the patagonicus group. The data set was built for 23 species plus nine other terminal taxa of undetermined taxonomic status. In total, 10,631 bp (ND4, Cytb, 12S, COI, five protein coding nuclear genes and seven anonymous nuclear loci) and 254 morphological characters were analyzed in a combined data set for 35 ingroup taxa and nine outgroups. We also ran separate DNA sequence and morphological data sets. We identified four main clades, and revealed congruencies and incongruences with previous studies. The indistinctus clade is recovered as the most basal within the patagonicus group in the strict parsimony analysis, while the somuncurensis clade is the most basal under Bayesian inference. The previously recovered calcogaster clade resulted paraphyletic in both analyses and part of their species are included in a redefined somuncurensis clade. We found low support at basal nodes provoked in part by contradictory evidence shown by rogue taxa. We show the phylogenetic information given by each partition/marker and how they contribute to relationships found in the total evidence analysis. We discuss the phylogenetic position of Phymaturus manuelae, Phymaturus tenebrosus, and Phymaturus patagonicus.     

Molecular phylogenetics of slit‐faced bats (Chiroptera: Nycteridae) reveal deeply divergent African lineages

The bat family Nycteridae contains only the genus Nycteris, which comprises 13 currently recognized species from Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, one species from Madagascar, and two species restricted to Malaysia and Indonesia in South‐East Asia. We investigated genetic variation, clade membership, and phylogenetic relationships in Nycteridae with broad sampling across Africa for most clades. We sequenced mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) and four independent nuclear introns (2,166 bp) from 253 individuals. Although our samples did not include all recognized species, we recovered at least 16 deeply divergent monophyletic lineages using independent mitochondrial and multilocus nuclear datasets in both gene tree and species tree analyses. Mean pairwise uncorrected genetic distances among species‐ranked Nycteris clades (17% for cytb and 4% for concatenated introns) suggest high levels of phylogenetic diversity in Nycteridae. We found a large number of designated clades whose members are distributed wholly or partly in East Africa (10 of 16 clades), indicating that Nycteris diversity has been historically underestimated and raising the possibility that additional unsampled and/or undescribed Nycteris species occur in more poorly sampled Central and West Africa. Well‐resolved mitochondrial, concatenated nuclear, and species trees strongly supported African ancestry for SE Asian species. Species tree analyses strongly support two deeply diverged subclades that have not previously been recognized, and these clades may warrant recognition as subgenera. Our analyses also strongly support four traditionally recognized species groups of Nycteris. Mitonuclear discordance regarding geographic population structure in Nycteris thebaica appears to result from male‐biased dispersal in this species. Our analyses, almost wholly based on museum voucher specimens, serve to identify species‐rank clades that can be tested with independent datasets, such as morphology, vocalizations, distributions, and ectoparasites. Our analyses highlight the need for a comprehensive revision of Nycteridae.     

Conservation Genetics of Kangaroo Mice, Genus Microdipodops

The two currently recognized species of kangaroo mice, Microdipodops megacephalus and M. pallidus, inhabit sandy soils of the Great Basin Desert in western North America. Given their habitat specificity and the fluctuating climate throughout the Pleistocene, kangaroo mice likely endured a turbulent biogeographic history that resulted in disjunct distributions and isolation of genetic lineages. Recent phylogenetic investigations using mitochondrial data have revealed several mitochondrial clades within this genus that may represent cryptic species. These mitochondrial clades are genetically unique, occupy relatively small distributions, and, as such, may be at an increased risk of extinction due to climate change and extensive recent habitat alteration. Herein, we apply haplotype network, population genetic, and historical demographic analyses to mitochondrial data of each Micropdipodops species and mitochondrial clade to assess conservation genetics within kangaroo mice. Results indicate that each mitochondrial clade is a distinct lineage with little to no gene flow occurring among clades. Additionally, historical demographic analyses support past population expansions and identify locations of past refugium for each distinct lineage. Although mitochondrial data indicate that the clades appear to be in approximate genetic equilibrium and have not suffered any extreme bottlenecks over time, there is still concern for the survival of smaller and more vulnerable Microdipodops subpopulations due to impending habitat threats in the Great Basin Desert.     

Molecular systematics and historical biogeography of tree boas (Corallus spp.)

Inferring the evolutionary and biogeographic history of taxa occurring in a particular region is one way to determine the processes by which the biodiversity of that region originated. Tree boas of the genus Corallus are an ancient clade and occur throughout Central and South America and the Lesser Antilles, making it an excellent group for investigating Neotropical biogeography. Using sequenced portions of two mitochondrial and three nuclear loci for individuals of all recognized species of Corallus, we infer phylogenetic relationships, present the first molecular analysis of the phylogenetic placement of the enigmatic C. cropanii, develop a time-calibrated phylogeny, and explore the biogeographic history of the genus. We found that Corallus diversified within mainland South America, via over-water dispersals to the Lesser Antilles and Central America, and via the traditionally recognized Panamanian land bridge. Divergence time estimates reject the South American Caribbean-Track as a general biogeographic model for Corallus and implicate a role for events during the Oligocene and Miocene in diversification such as marine incursions and the uplift of the Andes. Our findings also suggest that recognition of the island endemic species, C. grenadensis and C. cookii, is questionable as they are nested within the widely distributed species, C. hortulanus. Our results highlight the importance of using widespread taxa when forming and testing biogeographic hypotheses in complex regions and further illustrate the difficulty of forming broadly applicable hypotheses regarding patterns of diversification in the Neotropical region.     

Bat Systematics in the Light of Unconstrained Analyses of a Comprehensive Molecular Supermatrix

Bats (Chiroptera) represent the largest diversification of extant mammals after rodents. Here we report the results of a large-scale phylogeny of bats based on unconstrained searches for a data matrix of 804 non-chimeric, taxonomically updated bat terminals (796 species represented by a single terminal plus three species represented by ≥2 genetically distinct subspecies), able to preliminary test the systematics of most groups simultaneously. We used nine nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence markers fragmentary represented for ingroups (c. 90% and 64% of extant diversity at genus and species level, respectively) and 20 diverse placental outgroups. Maximum Likelihood and Parsimony analyses applied to the concatenated dataset yielded a highly resolved, variously supported phylogeny that recovered the majority of currently recognized clades at all levels of the chiropteran tree. Calibration points based on 44 key fossils allowed the Bayesian dating of bat origins at c. 4 my after the K-Pg boundary, and the determination of stem and crown ages of intraordinal clades. As expected, bats appeared nested in Laurasiatheria and split into Yinpterochiroptera and Yangochiroptera. More remarkable, all polytypic, currently recognized families were monophyletic, including Miniopteridae, Cistugidae, and Rhinonycteridae, as well as most polytypic genera with few expected exceptions (e.g., Hipposideros). The controversial Myzopodidae appeared in a novel position as sister of Emballonuroidea―a result with interesting biogeographic implications. Most recently recognized subfamilies, genera, and species groups were supported or only minor adjustments to the current taxonomy would be required, except Molossidae, which should be revised thoroughly. In light of our analysis, current bat systematics is strongly supported at all levels; the emergent perception of a strong biogeographic imprint on many recovered bat clades is emphasized.     

Phylogeography of Coreoperca whiteheadi (Perciformes: Coreoperca) in China based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences

The phylogeography of Coreoperca whiteheadi was studied using sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) gene and first intron of the S7 ribosomal protein gene. The reciprocal monophyly mitochondrial cytb and nuclear sequences strongly suggest that C. whiteheadi has significantly reduced gene flow between populations and may be in the process of speciation. Phylogenetic analysis revealed phylogeographical structuring into two major clades (highly supported by bootstrap analysis) corresponding to the two regions divided by Nanling-Wuyi Mountain Range. Subsequent nested clade analysis confirmed this structure. The results suggest that Nanling-Wuyi Mountain Range represents a major phylogeographic barrier for C. whiteheadi. Six evolutionarily significant units of C. whiteheadi were designated from the genetic analysis for conservation and management.     

Evaluation of relationships within the endemic Hawaiian Platynini (Coleoptera: Carabidae) based on molecular and morphological evidence

Relationships among 69 species of Hawaiian Platynini, a monophyletic beetle radiation, was investigated based on evidence from five data partitions, comprising mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences (cytochrome oxidase II, 624 bp; cytochrome b, 783 bp; 28S rDNA, 668 bp; wingless; 441 bp) and morphology (206 features of external and internal anatomy). Results from individual and combined data analyses generally support the monophyly of three putative divisions within Platynini in Hawaii: Division 0 (Colpocaccus species group), Division 1 (Blackburnia species group), and Division 2 (Metromenus species group). However, relationships within and among these three divisions differ from previous morphological hypotheses. An extensive series of sensitivity analyses was performed to assess robustness of recovered clades under a variety of weighted parsimony conditions. Sensitivity analyses support the monophyly of Divisions 0 and 1, but were equivocal for the monophyly of Division 2. A phylogeny based on combined data suggests at least four independent losses/reductions of platynine flight wings. The combined analysis provides corroboration for biogeographic hypotheses, including (1) colonization of Kauai by Hawaiian Platynini with subsequent dispersal and colonization along the island chain from Oahu to Maui Nui to Hawaii Island and (2) incongruent area relationships among Eastern Molokai, West Maui, and Haleakala for two species triplets.     

Phylogenetic Relationships of Five Asian Schilbid Genera Including Clupisoma (Siluriformes: Schilbeidae)

The phylogenetic relationships of Asian schilbid catfishes of the genera Clupisoma, Ailia, Horabagrus, Laides and Pseudeutropius are poorly understood, especially those of Clupisoma. Herein, we reconstruct the phylogeny of 38 species of catfishes belonging to 28 genera and 14 families using the concatenated mitochondrial genes COI, cytb, and 16S rRNA, as well as the nuclear genes RAG1 and RAG2. The resulting phylogenetic trees consistently place Clupisoma as the sister taxon of Laides, and the five representative Asian schilbid genera form two monophyletic groups with the relationships (Ailia (Laides, Clupisoma)) and (Horabagrus, Pseudeutropius). The so-called “Big Asia” lineage relates distantly to African schilbids. Independent analyses of the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA data yield differing trees for the two Asian schilbid groups. Analyses of the mitochondrial gene data support a sister-group relationship for (Ailia (Laides, Clupisoma)) and the Sisoroidea and a sister-taxon association of (Horabagrus, Pseudeutropius) and the Bagridae. In contrast, analyses of the combined nuclear data indicate (Ailia (Laides, Clupisoma)) to be the sister group to (Horabagrus, Pseudeutropius). Our results indicate that the Horabagridae, recognized by some authors as consisting of Horabagrus, Pseudeutropius and Clupisoma does not include the latter genus. We formally erect a new family, Ailiidae fam. nov. for a monophyletic Asian group comprised of the genera Ailia, Laides and Clupisoma.     

Phylogenetics and genetic diversity of the Cotesia flavipes complex of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), biological control agents of lepidopteran stemborers

The Cotesia flavipes complex of parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) are economically important for the biological control of lepidopteran stemboring pests associated with gramineous crops. Some members of the complex successfully parasitize numerous stemborer pest species, however certain geographic populations have demonstrated variation in the range of hosts that they parasitize. In addition, the morphology of the complex is highly conserved and considerable confusion surrounds the identity of species and host-associated biotypes. We generated nucleotide sequence data for two mtDNA genes (COI, 16S) and three anonymous nuclear loci (CfBN, CfCN, CfEN) for the C. flavipes complex. To analyze genetic variation and relationships among populations we used (1) concatenated mtDNA and nDNA data, (2) a nDNA multilocus network approach, and (3) two species tree inference methods, i.e. Bayesian estimation of species trees (BEST) and Bayesian inference of species trees from multilocus data with (*)BEAST. All phylogenetic analyses provide strong support for monophyly of the complex and the presence of at least four species, C. chilonis (from China and Japan), C. sesamiae (from Africa), C. flavipes (originating from the Indo-Asia region but introduced into Africa and the New World), and C. nonagriae (from Australia and Papua New Guinea). Haplotype diversity of geographic populations relates to historical biogeographic barriers and biological control introductions, and reflects previous reports of ecological variation in these species. Strong discordance was found between the mitochondrial and nuclear markers in the Papua New Guinea haplotypes, which may be an outcome of hybridization and introgression of C. flavipes and C. nonagriae. The position of Cotesia flavipes from Japan was not well supported in any analysis and was the sister taxon to C. nonagriae (mtDNA, (*)BEAST), C. flavipes (nDNA) or C. flavipes+C. nonagriae (BEST) and, may represent a cryptic species. The concatenated five gene phylogenetic analyses did not support the overall separation and monophyly of clades associated with different host species, although some clades did show specific host associations, possibly due to localized host availability, rather than host specificity. Our results provide a framework for assessing whether distinct lineages represent cryptic species, and for examining parasitoid-host evolution and compatibility more generally. Given the limitations of morphological based identification for members of this complex, molecular identification is recommended prior to any biological control introductions.     

On the evolution and diversification of an Andean clade of reptiles: combining morphology and DNA sequences of the palluma group (Liolaemidae: Phymaturus)

Phymaturus comprises 44 species mainly distributed along the south‐west of South America on both sides of the Andes. In this study we present a phylogenetic analysis of Phymaturus of the palluma group, one of its two large clades, including almost all described species. This analysis duplicates the number of in‐group taxa compared with previous contributions. We performed a total‐evidence analysis, combining molecular and morphological characters: sequencing fragments of cytochome b (cytb), 12S, and ND4, for all terminals; describing 45 new morphological characters; and incorporating all DNA sequences available from GenBank. Separate analyses of morphology and DNA partitions are presented and discussed in detail. Seven subclades are recognized here. We named three new subclades and redefined another, found to be paraphyletic. In order to recognize lineages within the traditional Phymaturus palluma group we proposed to treat it as a natural group, containing within it the ranks of clade, subclade, and lineages, respectively. The palluma group is composed by the vociferator and the bibronii clades. The vociferator clade, composed of Chilean and Argentinean species, would be the most basal in the group. Within the bibronii clade, the roigorum subclade includes the Phymaturus verdugo lineage, whereas the mallimaccii subclade would consist of 13 terminal taxa, for which three Chilean species have been added. In this study, morphological apomorphies are identified for all clades and the evolution of ‘male head melanism’ is discussed. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

Geographically widespread mitochondrial lineages of the African saw-wings inconsistent with species boundaries

The African saw-wings (genus Psalidoprocne) are a group of swallows endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. Although currently described as five species with several subspecies, the taxonomy of the saw-wings is unclear. We sequenced two mitochondrial genes (ND2 and cytb; 1 717 sites) from 20 individuals in order to investigate phylogenetic relationships across the range of Psalidoprocne. We obtained similar results from maximum likelihood (RAxML) and Bayesian (BEAST) phylogenetic analyses, which reveal multiple well-supported mitochondrial clades in the genus. The geographic overlap of distinct lineages suggests reproductive isolation, although these clades do not correspond entirely to current species designations.     

Molecular systematics and global phylogeography of angel sharks (genus Squatina)

Angel sharks of the genus Squatina represent a group comprising 22 extant benthic species inhabiting continental shelves and upper slopes. In the present study, a comprehensive phylogenetic reconstruction of 17 Squatina species based on two mitochondrial markers (COI and 16S rRNA) is provided. The phylogenetic reconstructions are used to test biogeographic patterns. In addition, a molecular clock analysis is conducted to estimate divergence times of the emerged clades. All analyses show Squatina to be monophyletic. Four geographic clades are recognized, of which the Europe–North Africa–Asia clade is probably a result of the Tethys Sea closure. A second sister group relationship emerged in the analyses, including S. californica (eastern North Pacific) and S. dumeril (western North Atlantic), probably related to the rise of the Panamanian isthmus. The molecular clock analysis show that both lineage divergences coincide with the estimated time of these two geological events.     

Lizards from the end of the world: phylogenetic relationships of the Liolaemus lineomaculatus section (Squamata: Iguania: Liolaemini)

The Liolaemus lineomaculatus section is a geographically widely distributed group of lizards from the Patagonian region of southern South America, and includes 18 described species representing the most southerly distributed Liolaemus taxa (the genus includes 228 species and extends from Tierra del Fuego north to south-central Peru). Despite high species diversity, the phylogenetic relationships of this section are unknown. In the present work we sampled all described species in the L. lineomaculatus section as well as currently undescribed candidate species to reconstruct the first complete phylogenetic hypothesis for the clade. Our data set included four anonymous nuclear loci, three nuclear protein-coding loci, and two mitochondrial genes. We compared results obtained with three different phylogenetic methods for the concatenated data set (Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference) with a coalescent-based species tree approach (BEST), and recovered congruent, strongly-supported topological arrangements across all methods. We identified four main clades within the L. lineomaculatus section: the lineomaculatus, magellanicus, somuncurae, and kingii+archeforus groups, for which we estimated divergence times. We discuss the taxonomic implications of these results and how the future integration of phylogeographic, niche modeling and morphological approaches will allow testing biogeographical hypotheses in this clade.     

Molecular phylogeny and host use evolution of the genus Exorista Meigen (Diptera: Tachinidae)

Members of the genus Exorista are parasitoids of a diverse array of insect hosts in the orders, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Mantodea and Orthoptera. Phylogenetic relationships among subgenera and species of Exorista were inferred using four nuclear (Tpi, white, 18S and 28S) and four mitochondrial DNA (16S, 12S, ND5 and CO1) genes in maximum parsimony (MP), maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) analyses. Separate trees based on different sets of genes (mt DNA, nuclear, ribosomal, etc.) were compared and found to be nearly concordant. According to the molecular tree generated from the concatenated sequence data, the genus Exorista is paraphyletic. The phylogenetic analyses indicate the existence of two major clades of Exorista, including two genera Parasetigena and Phorocera. Morphological traits supporting clades indicated by molecular analyses within this genus are evaluated. Evolutionary patterns of the host use and host shifts are examined by optimizing host information using maximum likelihood on the molecular phylogeny. The ancestral host group of the tribe Exoristini (excluding Ctenophorinia and Phorinia) appears to be the order Lepidoptera, although hosts of some species are unknown. A major host shift to the Hymenoptera occurred in the clade of subgenus Adenia, and the ancestral state of subgenus Spixomyia is equivocal because there is little information available on the hosts in members of a subclade of this group (subclade A: Exorista hyalipennis group).     

Monitors cross the Red Sea: the biogeographic history of Varanus yemenensis

The Red Sea has had a profound biogeographic effect on organisms with Afro-Asian distributions, resulting in complex patterns of admixture on the Arabian Peninsula. We investigate the phylogenetic affinities of a monitor lizard (Varanus yemenensis) restricted to the southwestern Arabian Peninsula by sequencing all African monitor species and several Asian monitor species for the mitochondrial gene ND2 and the nuclear marker RAG-1. We find evidence that V. yemenensis is of African origin, being most closely related to the white-throat monitor, V. albigularis, an African species complex distributed from the Horn of Africa to southern Africa. Using divergence-dating analyses, we investigate several biogeographic hypotheses to infer the likely mechanism of colonization of the Arabian Peninsula by this species. Our results reveal that both dispersal across a southern land bridge and overwater dispersal are potential explanations. The patterns observed in V. yemenensis are contrasted with other taxa having similar Afro-Arabian disjunct distributions to better understand the complex biogeographic history of this region.     

Multilocus phylogeny and species delimitation within the Natterer's bat species complex in the Western Palearctic

Delimiting species is a crucial issue for many biological disciplines and is of primary importance for designing effective conservation plans. Traditional taxonomy based on morphological characters can be misled by the presence of phenotypic plesiomorphism or adaptative convergence. The use of multiple locus genetic data appears thus as a powerful tool for recognizing species boundaries. In this study, we used six nuclear introns and two mitochondrial markers to conduct a phylogenetic study of the Myotis nattereri species complex in the Western Palearctic. We combined tree-based and non-tree-based analyses, and also used concatenated phylogenetic methods of the separated nuclear and mitochondrial dataset as well as a recent coalescence-based multilocus approach. The strong concordance between the results of the analyses conducted confirms that M. nattereri is a paraphyletic group that is composed of four well-differentiated lineages in the study area. In the framework of the unified species concept, these four clades can be confidently considered as four valid species. This recognition of new cryptic species in the Western Mediterranean region shows that the biodiversity of this well-studied area is still not fully understood.     

Phylogenetic relationships of phrynosomatid lizards based on nuclear and mitochondrial data,and a revised phylogeny for Sceloporus

Phrynosomatid lizards are among the most common and diverse groups of reptiles in western North America, Mexico, and Central America. Phrynosomatidae includes 136 species in 10 genera. Phrynosomatids are used as model systems in many research programs in evolution and ecology, and much of this research has been undertaken in a comparative phylogenetic framework. However, relationships among many phrynosomatid genera are poorly supported and in conflict between recent studies. Further, previous studies based on mitochondrial DNA sequences suggested that the most species-rich genus (Sceloporus) is possibly paraphyletic with respect to as many as four other genera (Petrosaurus, Sator, Urosaurus, and Uta). Here, we collect new sequence data from five nuclear genes and combine them with published data from one additional nuclear gene and five mitochondrial gene regions. We compare trees from nuclear and mitochondrial data from 37 phrynosomatid taxa, including a “species tree” (from BEST) for the nuclear data. We also present a phylogeny for 122 phrynosomatid species based on maximum likelihood analysis of the combined data, which provides a strongly-supported hypothesis for relationships among most phrynosomatid genera and includes most phrynosomatid species. Our results strongly support the monophyly of Sceloporus (including Sator) and many of the relationships within it. We present a new classification for phrynosomatid lizards and the genus Sceloporus, and offer a new tree with branch lengths for use in comparative studies.     

Neotomine-peromyscine rodent systematics based on combined analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences

Recently, sequences from two nuclear genes (exon 6 of the dentin matrix protein 1 gene and intron 7 of the beta-fibrinogen gene) and one mitochondrial gene (cytochrome b gene) were used independently in an attempt to resolve phylogenetic relationships within the neotomine-peromyscine complex. Although these studies provided testable hypotheses regarding this group of rodents, the affinities of certain tribes and genera remain uncertain. To elucidate these relationships, the three data partitions were tested for heterogeneity and then concatenated according to conditional data combination and total evidence approaches. Support was found for five clades, four of which correspond to well recognized tribes (the Neotomini, Peromyscini=Reithrodontomyini, Baiomyini, and Tylomyini). Recommendations are made regarding the recognition of Ochrotomys as a tribe of its own, the Ochrotomyini, paralleling other recent findings. The Peromyscini, Baiomyini, and Ochrotomyini are unresolved in relation to each other, but as a whole are sister to the Neotomini. The Tylomyini is basal to all clades. It appears that combined data from the nuclear and mitochondrial genes (analyzing all three partitions simultaneously) resulted in the best phylogenetic hypothesis regarding the complex.     

Predicting the environmental niche of the genus Phymaturus: Are palluma and patagonicus groups ecologically differentiated?

The genus Phymaturus (Reptilia: Liolaemidae) is distributed in the mountains and rocky plateaux of Argentina and Chile and comprises two groups of species, palluma and patagonicus. The two lineages have diverged early in the evolution of the genus and up to today, there is very little geographical overlap between them. We worked with records of localities from the literature, herpetological collections and field data to evaluate habitat suitability of the genus Phymaturus. We used 11 environmental variables to develop environmental niche models (ENMs) for each group within the genus using the Maxent software, and to determine those variables that best explain the distribution of each group. We also estimated measures of niche similarity using ENMTools to determine whether niche differentiation is real or apparent. The geographical overlap between the groups was very low considering the large geographical range of the genus. Some variables, such as mean annual temperature, soil type and bare soil cover, have a high contribution to the models for both groups. The current niche overlap between Phymaturus groups indicates that the environmental niches of the palluma and patagonicus groups are not equivalent. Based on background analysis, we cannot reject the hypothesis that similarity (or divergence) between groups of Phymaturus is no more than expected based on the availability of habitat. The results of this study are a first approximation to the knowledge of the environmental variables associated with the palluma and patagonicus groups, and reveal that the ecological differences found between these groups are more likely due to habitat availability in their respective regions than to differences in habitat preferences.     

Phylogeny of Habronattus jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae), with consideration of genital and courtship evolution

Abstract. DNA sequences from the mitochondrial (including ND1, 16S) and nuclear (EF‐1α) genomes of about ninety‐four species were obtained to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships of Habronattus jumping spiders. Maximum parsimony trees were sought with both separate (mitochondrial, nuclear) and combined analyses; maximum likelihood trees were sought with both separate (ND1, 16S, EF‐1α introns, EF‐1α exons) and combined (mitochondrial, nuclear) analyses. All analyses agreed on some fundamental aspects of the tree, including the monophyly of the previously recognized agilis, amicus, dorotheae and americanus species groups. The deep phylogenetic structure is well resolved, placing the agilis, amicus, tranquillus and dorotheae groups basally. Several other previously unrecognized clades were well supported, including a newly formulated decorus group. The large group of species with modified male first and third legs was supported as monophyletic except for the surprising placement elsewhere of three species of the group. The phenotypic similarities between these three and the others are so detailed and precise that convergence in ornamentation can probably be ruled out. There are hints of phylogenetically distant genetic introgression involving the coecatus group. The combination Habronattus paratus is restored based on the species falling within Habronattus. Regarding patterns of character evolution, there was consistent support for the basal placement of several species groups with a long embolus, suggesting that there were more evolutionary reductions in embolus length than postulated in a previous morphological phylogeny. This is in accord with the expectation that there is a bias to an overly conservative interpretation of a character's evolution if it is interpreted on a phylogeny based in part on that same character. In contrast, the molecular phylogeny did not suggest any instances of the evolutionary transformation of one complex style of courtship into another, a possibility that could have been difficult to detect using the morphological phylogeny because of the same bias to conservativism.