综述与专论：甘丙肽对抑郁症状的调控作用及其机制的研究进展

甘丙肽(galanin, GAL)作为治疗抑郁症的可能靶点被关注已久,但目前仍未有广泛应用的GAL类抗抑郁药物。GAL可与3种G蛋白偶联受体(GalR1～3)结合,GalR1和GalR3介导促进抑郁的作用,GalR2介导抗抑郁的作用。GAL的N端有生物活性的片段GAL (1-15),通过其受体GalR1-GalR2异聚体(heteromer),介导比GAL更强的调节抑郁效应。GAL (1-15)还可以通过GalR1-GalR2异聚体与5-羟色胺1A受体(5-HT1AR)相互作用形成GalR1-GalR2-5-HT1AR异聚体的方式,加强5-HT1AR激动剂的抗抑郁效果。此外,GAL及其受体还与去甲肾上腺素、神经肽Y、脑源性神经营养因子、多巴胺等递质或因子交互作用调节抑郁。本文梳理GAL及其受体对抑郁的调节作用及其可能机制,并对以GAL及其受体为靶点开发的药物应用于临床治疗抑郁症的可能性进行探讨。     

甘丙肽对PC12细胞和B104细胞增殖的不同影响

本实验运用PCI2细胞和B104细胞对甘丙肽（GAL）在神经增殖上的作用进行了研究。运用RT-PCR方法检测GAL及其受体在PCI2细胞和B104细胞中的表达：运用MTT法检测GAL及其受体激动剂、拮抗剂对两种细胞增殖的影响。结果显示：PCI2细胞表达所有三种GAL受体（GalRs）．而不表达GAL;B104细胞表达GAL及两种受体GaIR2和GalR3,而不表达GalRl;GAL及其受体激动剂GAL1-11和GAL2-11能够明显地抑制PC12细胞增殖、却会明显促进B104细胞的增殖。这些效应皆可被非特异性GAL受体拮抗剂M35所阻断。结果说明,GAL可以通过其受体影响细胞的增殖．并且不同受体可能介导不同的作用。     

甘丙肽及其受体在嗅成鞘细胞中的表达及对细胞增殖的影响

本实验从新生大鼠嗅球中分离出嗅成鞘细胞,进行体外培养。运用RT-PCR方法检测甘丙肽及其受体在体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞中的表达;运用MTT法检测甘丙肽及其受体激动剂、拮抗剂对嗅成鞘细胞增殖的影响。结果显示:嗅成鞘细胞表达甘丙肽(GAL)及其受体GalR2,而不表达其他两种受体GalR1和GalR3;甘西肽及两种受体激动剂GAL1-11和GAL2-11能够明显地抑制体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞的增殖,这一效应可被非特异性甘丙肽受体拮抗剂M35所阻断。     

甘丙肽及其受体在中枢神经系统疾病中的作用

中枢神经系统疾病因其发病机制复杂而难以找到药物作用的有效靶点。甘丙肽(galanin, GAL)因其广泛的中枢神经系统分布并与多种神经系统疾病密切相关而进入人们的视线。现已证明,GAL与三种G蛋白偶联受体(GALR1-3)结合后,通过抑制cAMP/PKA(GALR1、GALR3)和激活磷脂酶C(GALR2)等信号通路调节众多生理和病理过程。本文概述了近年来GAL及其受体在中枢神经系统疾病中的作用的研究进展,旨在为理解这些疾病的发病机制以及靶向药物的研发提供新的指导。     

甘丙肽及其受体在嗅成鞘细胞中的表达及对细胞增殖的影响

本实验从新生大鼠嗅球中分离出嗅成鞘细胞,进行体外培养。运用RT—PCR方法检测甘丙肽及其受体在体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞中的表达;运用MTT法检测甘丙肽及其受体激动剂、拮抗剂对嗅成鞘细胞增殖的影响。结果显示：嗅成鞘细胞表达甘丙肽(GAL)及其受体GalR2,而不表达其他两种受体GalRl和GalR3;甘丙肽及两种受体激动剂GALl-11和GAL2-11能够明显地抑制体外培养的嗅成鞘细胞的增殖,这一效应可被非特异性甘丙肽受体拮抗剂M35所阻断。     

甘丙肽提高离体海马神经细胞在过氧化氢损伤中的存活率

实验运用离体培养的大鼠海马神经细胞,观察了过氧化氢对海马神经细胞的损伤效应及甘丙肽(GAL)对氧化应激过程中海马神经细胞的保护作用。结果显示,过氧化氢对海马神经细胞具有明显的剂量相关毒性效应。甘丙肽以及甘丙肽非特异性受体激动剂GAL1-11和甘丙肽受体2 (GalR-2)特异性激动剂GAL2-11能显著减少海马神经细胞在氧化应激过程中的损伤反应,这种效应可被GAL非特异性受体阻断剂M35阻断。实验提示GAL对氧化应激导致的海马神经细胞损伤具有保护作用,这种作用很有可能是由GalR-2受体介导。     

甘丙肽受体的研究进展

目前已经克隆了3种甘丙肽受体（GalR1, GalR2, GalR3）,它们都是与G蛋白相偶联的受体.3种甘丙肽受体的氨基酸序列、药理学特性以及第二信使系统各不相同.GalR1/3受体可以抑制腺苷酸环化酶并可以激活钾通道,GalR2受体可以激活磷脂酶C并增加胞内钙离子浓度.用RNA印迹、反转录PCR以及原位杂交等技术对上述3种甘丙肽受体在人、大鼠和小鼠中的分布进行了研究,发现它们具有不同的分布特征,提示不同的甘丙肽受体可能参与不同的生理过程.     

甘丙肽2型受体在HEK293细胞中的表达及内化过程

构建了在甘丙肽2型受体(GalR2)N端带myc表位标签的真核表达载体,并将其转染到HEK293细胞,进而应用免疫荧光细胞化学方法结合激光扫描共聚焦显微技术观察GalR2蛋白的亚细胞分布和膜转运过程。Western blot结果发现转染组myc-GalR2蛋白水平呈高表达。myc-GalR2主要分布在细胞膜上,少量分布于胞浆中。当给予甘丙肽(10-7mol/L)刺激后,5min时可见细胞膜上myc-GalR2明显减少,胞浆内myc-GalR2增多,15min时膜上myc-GalR2几乎全部消失。表明GalR2受体与配体结合后发生内化,且受体蛋白内化为时间依赖性的转运过程,证实在HEK293细胞GalR2会出现配体依赖性内化。同时,以已知膜蛋白5-HT1AR的内化作为对照,可见在给予甘丙肽刺激以后,5-HT1AR没有发生内化,受体蛋白仍然表达在膜上。此外,通过测定胞内钙水平激活情况来检测其信号通路激活情况,表明myc对GalR2功能没有明显影响。     

神经多肽中的新成员：甘丙肽

甘丙肽(galanin,GAL)是由29个氨基酸残基组成的神经多肽,具有由123个氨基酸组成的前体蛋白,即前GAL原(prepro GAL)。甘丙肽样免疫反应物质(GAL-like immunoreactivity,GAL-LI)存在于脑和脊髓、周围神经系统和某些器官。在体内某些含有GAL-LI的细胞也存在儿茶酚胺、5-HT、GABA、乙酰胆碱等递质与神经多肽。新生鼠用辣椒素处理后,可减少脑内某些区域和脊髓内的GAL-LI的含量。GAL可减少血浆胰岛素的含量,增加血糖以及抑制肠道的运动。在大鼠第三脑室、人的静脉注射GAL,均可视察到血浆生长素含量增加。在大鼠下丘脑的室旁核内注射GAL可增强摄食活动。     

甘丙肽家族及其受体的功能

甘丙肽家族包含甘丙肽(galanin)、甘丙肽信息相关肽(galanin-message-associated peptide,GMAP)、甘丙肽样肽(galanin-like peptide,GALP)和alarin。目前已经克隆了三种甘丙肽受体,分别是GalR1、GalR2、GalR3,它们都是G蛋白偶联受体。三种受体具有不同的分布特征,介导不同的生理过程。甘丙肽及其受体在生物体内中枢神经系统和外周神经系统中分布广泛,参与学习和记忆、焦虑行为、痛觉调节、摄食活动、渗透平衡、神经损伤修复和神经保护、胃肠道活动以及皮肤炎症处理等多种生理过程。这些生理功能提示甘丙肽及其受体可能在多种疾病的病理过程中发挥着潜在的作用,如阿尔茨海默氏病、癫痫、酗酒、糖尿病、神经性疼痛、抑郁症和癌症。     

GalR2/3 mediates proliferative and trophic effects of galanin on postnatal hippocampal precursors

Understanding how neural activity is functionally linked to the stem cell niche, is assuming ever increasing importance as hippocampal neurogenesis is shown to be important for modulating the behavioural responses to stress and for certain forms of learning and memory. Neuropeptides such as neuropeptide Y and vasoactive intestinal peptide have emerged as important mediators for signalling local interneuron activity to subgranular zone precursors, however, little is known regarding the effects of neuropeptides that are extrinsic modulators of hippocampal information processing. Here, we show that the galanin GalR2/3 agonist Gal2-11 is both trophic and proliferative for postnatal subgranular precursors and proliferating neuroblasts at 10 nM and is purely trophic at doses as low as 100 pM. We found no effect mediated via GalR1. As galanin is co-released from noradrenergic and serotonergic projection neurons to the dentate gyrus, these findings support a direct effect of galanin on hippocampal neurogenesis, which may partly mediate its antidepressant effect via GalR2/3 receptors.     

Galanin Alters GABAergic Neurotransmission in the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus

The neuropeptide galanin and its three receptor subtypes (Gal R1-3) are highly expressed in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN), a region of the brain that contains a large population of serotonergic neurons. Galanin is co-expressed with serotonin in approximately 40% of the DRN neurons, and galanin and GALR2 expression are elevated by antidepressants like the SSRI fluoxetine, suggesting an interaction between serotonin and galanin. The present study examines the effect of galanin (Gal 1–29), a pan ligand for GalR (1–3) and the GalR2/GalR3-selective ligand, Gal 2–11, on the electrophysiological properties of DRN serotonergic neurons in a slice preparation. We recorded from cells in the DRN with electrophysiological characteristics consistent with those of serotonergic neurons that exhibit high input resistance, large after-hyperpolarizations and long spike duration as defined by Aghajanian and Vandermaelen. Both Gal 1–29 and Gal 2–11 decreased the amplitudes pharmacologically-isolated GABAergic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in these putative serotonergic neurons. Furthermore, based on paired pulse facilitation studies, we show that Gal 1–29 likely decreases GABA release through a presynaptic mechanism, whereas Gal 2–11 may act postsynaptically. These findings may enhance understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying the effects of antidepressant treatments on galanin and galanin receptors in DRN. Special issue article in honor of Dr. Frode Fonnum.     

Novel systemically active galanin receptor 2 ligands in depression‐like behavior

Neuropeptide galanin and its three G‐protein coupled receptors, galanin receptor type 1–galanin receptor type 3 (GalR1–GalR3), are involved in the regulation of numerous physiological and disease processes, and thus represent tremendous potential in neuroscience research and novel drug lead development. One of the areas where galanin is involved is depression. Previous studies have suggested that activation of GalR2 leads to attenuation of depression‐like behavior. Unfortunately, lack of in vivo usable subtype specific ligands hinders testing the role of galanin in depression mechanisms. In this article, we utilize an approach of increasing in vivo usability of peptide‐based ligands, acting upon CNS. Thus, we have synthesized a series of novel systemically active galanin analogs, with modest preferential binding toward GalR2. We have shown that specific chemical modifications to the galanin backbone increase brain levels upon i.v. injection of the peptides. Several of the new peptides, similar to a common clinically used antidepressant medication imipramine, exerted antidepressant‐like effect in forced swim test, a mouse model of depression, at a surprisingly low dose range (< 0.5 mg/kg). We chose one of the peptides, J18, for more thorough study, and showed its efficacy also in another mouse depression model (tail suspension test), and demonstrated that its antidepressant‐like effect upon i.v. administration can be blocked by i.c.v. galanin receptor antagonist M35. The effect of the J18 was also abolished in GalR2KO animals. All this suggests that systemically administered peptide analog J18 exerts its biological effect through activation of GalR2 in the brain. The novel galanin analogs represent potential drug leads and a novel pharmaceutical intervention for depression.

     

Behavioural evidence for simultaneous dual changes of 5-HT receptor subtypes: mode of antidepressant action?

Effects of the classic antidepressant imipramine and of an imipramine-like potential antidepressant dihydroergosine were studied in mice, rats and guinea pigs using behavioural models associated with the activation of 5-HT2 and 5-HT1 receptors respectively. Both drugs given in a single dose inhibited the 5-HT2 mediated behaviour for 24 and 48 h respectively and simultaneously stimulated 5-HT1 mediated behaviour for 6 days. Blockade of 5-HT2 receptors could have reduced their inhibitory influence on 5-HT1 receptors. We propose that the interplay between the two receptor subtypes controls the serotoninergic transmission. This idea throws a new light on the mode of action of antidepressants.     

Antidepressant-like effects of buspirone mediated by the 5-HT1A post-synaptic receptors in the learned helplessness paradigm

The 5-HT1A receptor agonists buspirone and 8-OH-DPAT have strong effects on serotoninergic systems. Mediated by both pre- and post-synaptic 5-HT1A receptors, these pharmacological effects might predict both antidepressant and antianxiety activities. In animal models sensitive to antidepressant drugs, the 5-HT1A agonists administered i.p. have been shown to mimic the behavioral effects of tricyclics. In the present study, the learned helplessness paradigm was used to assess the possible role of pre- or post-synaptic 5-HTIA receptors in this effect. The ability of buspirone compared with 8-OH-DPAT to reduce helpless behavior was investigated after local microinjections (0.1 or 1.0 micrograms in 0.5 microliters) into the raphe nuclei or into the septum. The results indicate that microinjections of buspirone or 8-OH-DPAT into the raphe nuclei did not reverse helpless behavior; in contrast, microinjections of both 5-HTIA agonists into the septum reverse helpless behavior. These results suggest that antidepressant-like properties of buspirone and 8-OH-DPAT may be mediated, in this test, by the post-synaptic 5-HTIA receptors through functional enhancement of the 5-HT transmission.     

Serotoninergic System in Scrapie-Infected Hamsters

Hamsters inoculated with scrapie virus show a dramatic hypersensitivity to serotoninergic drugs, developing a behavioral syndrome not unlike that obtained with pharmacologically induced lesions of the raphe nuclei. In an attempt to explain the state of hypersensitivity and to determine whether or not serotoninergic neurons were targets of the scrapie virus, pre- and postsynaptic serotoninergic sites were studied in the cerebral cortices of scrapie-infected and sham-inoculated hamsters. [3H]Imipramine binding and the uptake of endogenous 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) in synaptosomes prepared from scrapie-inoculated animals were not different from those of controls. This suggests integrity of the serotoninergic neurons in scrapie-infected hamsters. In contrast, affinity for the 5-HT1 receptor (which modulates inhibitory response) was diminished whereas that for the 5-HT2 receptor (which modulates excitatory response) was increased. This "imbalance" between the two receptors which is amplified in in vivo responses may account for the 5-HT hypersensitivity. The alteration in the affinity of the two postsynaptic 5-HT receptors supports the observation that scrapie virus alters cell plasma membranes.     

Novel Galanin Receptor Subtype Specific Ligand in Depression Like Behavior

Neuropeptide galanin and its three receptors, galanin receptor type 1–galanin receptor type 3, are known to be involved in the regulation of numerous psychological processes, including depression. Studies have suggested that stimulation of galanin receptor type 2 (GalR2) leads to attenuation of the depression-like behavior in animals. However, due to the lack of highly selective galanin subtype specific ligands the involvement of different receptors in depression-like behavior is yet not fully known. In the present study we introduce a novel GalR2 selective agonist and demonstrate its ability to produce actions consistent with theorized GalR2 functions and analogous to that of the anti-depressant, imipramine.     

Galanin as a modulator of anxiety and depression and a therapeutic target for affective disease

Summary. Galanin is a 29 amino-acid (30 in humans) neuropeptide with a close functional relationship with neurotransmitter systems implicated in the pathophysiology and treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. In rodent models of depression-related behavior, treatment with galanin or compounds with agonist actions at galanin receptors has been shown to affect depression-related behaviors and the behavioral and neurochemical effects of antidepressants. Treatment with clinically efficacious antidepressants alters galanin and galanin receptor gene expression in rodents. Rodent anxiety-like behaviors appear to be modulated by galanin in a complex manner, with studies showing either increases, decreases and no effects of galanin treatments and galanin mutations on anxiety-like behavior in various tasks. One concept to emerge from this literature is that galanin recruitment during extreme behavioral and physiological provocations such as stress and opiate withdrawal may serve to attenuate negative emotional states caused by noradrenergic hyperactivation. The specific galanin receptor subtypes mediating the anxiety- and depression-related effects of galanin remains to be determined, with evidence supporting a possible contribution of GalR1, GalR2 and GalR3. While our understanding of the role of galanin as a modulator of emotion remains at an early stage, recent progress in this rapidly evolving field raise possibility of that galanin may represent a target for the development of novel antidepressant and anxiolytic drug treatments.     

Cortical and septal responses to dorsal raphe nucleus stimulation in the rat: long-term clomipramine actions.

In cerebral cortex and lateral septal nuclei different serotonergic receptor subtypes coexist, thus a different action on neuronal firing may be expected depending on the receptor activated. Dorsal raphe nucleus stimulation produced an increased rate of firing in cortical layer V, and in lateral septal nuclei. However, firing rate in cortical layer VI remained unchanged after stimulating the dorsal raphe nucleus. Clomipramine is a tricyclic which exerts its main actions on serotonergic receptors, and long-term treatment with this antidepressant produced a selective increased firing rate in lateral septal neurons, but not in cortical neurons. From an electrophysiological point of view, it is concluded that the excitatory actions on firing rate elicited by dorsal raphe nucleus stimulation or clomipramine treatment are mediated by 5-HT2 receptor subtype activation which is likely to be acting as a 5-HT1A modulator in such places where both receptor subtypes coexist.