Primary structure and expression of a sodium channel characteristic of denervated and immature rat skeletal muscle

The alpha subunit of a voltage-sensitive sodium channel characteristic of denervated rat skeletal muscle was cloned and characterized. The cDNA encodes a 2018 amino acid protein (SkM2) that is homologous to other recently cloned sodium channels, including a tetrodotoxin (TTX)-sensitive sodium channel from rat skeletal muscle (SkM1). The SkM2 protein is no more homologous to SkM1 than to the rat brain sodium channels and differs notably from SkM1 in having a longer cytoplasmic loop joining domains 1 and 2. Steady-state mRNA levels for SkM1 and SkM2 are regulated differently during development and following denervation: the SkM2 mRNA level is highest in early development, when TTX-insensitive channels predominate, but declines rapidly with age as SkM1 mRNA increases; SkM2 mRNA is not detectable in normally innervated adult skeletal muscle but increases greater than 100-fold after denervation; rat cardiac muscle has abundant SkM2 mRNA but no detectable SkM1 message. These findings suggest that SkM2 is a TTX-insensitive sodium channel expressed in both skeletal and cardiac muscle.     

Cardiac actin is the major actin gene product in skeletal muscle cell differentiation in vitro.

We examined the expression of alpha-skeletal, alpha-cardiac, and beta- and gamma-cytoskeletal actin genes in a mouse skeletal muscle cell line (C2C12) during differentiation in vitro. Using isotype-specific cDNA probes, we showed that the alpha-skeletal actin mRNA pool reached only 15% of the level reached in adult skeletal muscle and required several days to attain this peak, which was then stably maintained. However, these cells accumulated a pool of alpha-cardiac actin six times higher than the alpha-skeletal actin mRNA peak within 24 h of the initiation of differentiation. After cells had been cultured for an additional 3 days, this pool declined to 10% of its peak level. In contrast, over 95% of the actin mRNA in adult skeletal muscle coded for alpha-actin. This suggests that C2C12 cells express a pattern of sarcomeric actin genes typical of either muscle development or regeneration and distinct from that seen in mature, adult tissue. Concurrently in the course of differentiation the beta- and gamma-cytoskeletal actin mRNA pools decreased to less than 10% of their levels in proliferating cells. The decreases in beta- and gamma-cytoskeletal actin mRNAs are apparently not coordinately regulated.     

Expression of adenylyl cyclase mRNAs in the denervated and in the developing mouse skeletal muscle

Changes in theactivity and in the expression of adenylyl cyclase (AC) were examinedin mouse skeletal muscle after denervation and during development. Fourisoforms of AC (AC2, AC6, AC7, and AC9) were detected by Northern blotanalysis in gastrocnemius muscle, AC9 being the most abundant. Afterdenervation, the levels of AC2 and AC9 mRNA decreased, whereas those ofAC6 and AC7 increased. AC activity in response to severalneurotransmitters was increased after denervation. During development,AC activity was high in fetus and neonate and declined in the adult;the sensitivity of AC activity to various neurotransmitters was thehighest on the third postnatal day. The levels of AC6 and AC7 mRNAswere high on the third postnatal day and then decreased in adult,paralleling the decline in AC activity. All the characteristics of ACexpression and activity in fetus and neonate resembled those observedin denervated adult muscle. These results indicate that changes in ACactivity and AC mRNAs play an important role in the various physiopathological states of skeletal muscle, especially during muscleatrophy.

     

A developmental study of the abnormal expression of alpha-cardiac and alpha-skeletal actins in the striated muscle of a mutant mouse

BALB/c mice possess a 5' duplication of the alpha-cardiac actin gene which is associated with abnormal levels of alpha-cardiac and alpha-skeletal actin mRNAs in adult cardiac tissue. This mutation therefore provides a potential tool for the study of the inter-relationship between the striated muscle actins. We have examined the expression of this actin gene pair throughout the development of skeletal and cardiac muscle in BALB/c mice. During embryonic and fetal development, the expression of these two genes is indistinguishable from that in normal mice, as determined by in situ hybridization. A quantitative postnatal study demonstrates that in the hearts of normal mice the level of alpha-cardiac actin mRNA declines, whereas that of alpha-skeletal actin increases. In mutant mice, these trends are exaggerated so that whereas normal mice have 95.8% alpha-cardiac mRNA and 4.2% alpha-skeletal mRNA in the adult heart, BALB/c mice have 52.4 and 47.6% of these mRNAs, respectively. This difference is also reflected at the protein level. In developing skeletal muscle, the expression of these genes follows kinetics similar to that observed in the heart with a decrease in the relative level of alpha-cardiac mRNA as the muscle matures. Cardiac actin mRNA levels are again lower in the mutant mouse, but here the effect is less striking because skeletal actin is the predominant isoform. These results are discussed in the context of the interaction between this actin gene pair in developing and adult striated muscle.     

Galectin-1 expression in innervated and denervated skeletal muscle

Galectin-1 is a soluble carbohydrate-binding protein with a particularly high expression in skeletal muscle. Galectin-1 has been implicated in skeletal muscle development and in adult muscle regeneration, but also in the degeneration of neuronal processes and/or in peripheral nerve regeneration. Exogenously supplied oxidized galectin-1, which lacks carbohydrate-binding properties, has been shown to promote neurite outgrowth after sciatic nerve sectioning. In this study, we compared the expression of galectin-1 mRNA and immunoreactivity in innervated and denervated mouse and rat hind-limb and hemidiaphragm muscles. The results show that galectin-1 mRNA expression and immunoreactivity are up-regulated following denervation. The galectin-1 mRNA is expressed in the extrasynaptic and perisynaptic regions of the muscle, and its immunoreactivity can be detected in both regions by Western blot analysis. The results are compatible with a role for galectin-1 in facilitating reinnervation of denervated skeletal muscle.     

Expression and DNA sequence analysis of a human embryonic skeletal muscle myosin heavy chain gene.

Vertebrate myosin heavy chains (MHC) are represented by multiple genes that are expressed in a spatially and temporally distinct pattern during development. In order to obtain molecular probes for developmentally regulated human MHC isoforms, we used monoclonal antibodies to screen an expression cDNA library constructed from primary human myotube cultures. A 3.4 kb cDNA was isolated that encodes one of the first MHCs to be transcribed in human skeletal muscle development. A portion of the corresponding gene encoding this isoform has also been isolated. Expression of this embryonic MHC is a hallmark of muscle regeneration after birth and is a characteristic marker of human muscular dystrophies. During normal human development, expression is restricted to the embryonic period of development prior to birth. In primary human muscle cell cultures, devoid of other cell types, mRNA accumulation begins as myotubes form, reaches a peak 2 days later and declines to undetectable levels within 10 days. The expression of the protein encoded by the embryonic skeletal MHC gene follows a similar time course, lagging behind the mRNA by approximately two days. Thus, expression of the human embryonic gene is efficiently induced and then repressed in cultured muscle cells, as it is in muscle tissue. The study of the regulation of a human MHC isoform with a central role in muscle development and in muscle regeneration in disease states is therefore amendable to analysis at a molecular level.     

Denervation enhances the expression of SHPS-1 in rat skeletal muscle

SHPS-1 (Src homology 2 domain containing protein tyrosine phosphatase substrate 1) is a transmembrane glycoprotein containing three immunoglobulin-like motifs in its extracellular domain and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motifs (ITIM) that interact with SHP-2 (Src homology 2 domain containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2) in its cytoplasmic region. SHPS-1 is highly expressed in brain, but at much lower levels in skeletal muscle. In this study, we found that the level of the SHPS-1 mRNA increases in rat skeletal muscle after denervation. Western blot analysis also confirmed the increase of SHPS-1 in denervated muscle. Moreover, it was found that the glycosylation of SHPS-1 is N-linked in a muscle-specific manner, and that this is altered upon innervation or denervation. Immunohistochemistry revealed SHPS-1 immunoreactivity at neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) under innervation, whereas immunoreactivity was observed extrasynaptically in muscle fibers after denervation. Our results indicate that the expression, glycosylation, and localization of SHPS-1 are strongly regulated by the nervous system, and that SHPS-1 may play an important role in denervated skeletal muscle.     

Nerve sprouting in innervated adult skeletal muscle induced by exposure to elevated levels of insulin-like growth factors

Partial denervation or paralysis of adult skeletal muscle is followed by nerve sprouting, probably due to release of diffusible sprout-inducing activity by inactive muscle. Insulin-like growth factors (IGF1 and IFG2) are candidates for muscle-derived sprouting activity, because (a) they induce neurite growth from peripheral neurons in vitro; and (b) their mRNA levels in adult skeletal muscle increase severalfold after denervation or paralysis. We sought to determine whether the presence of elevated levels of IGFs in innervated adult skeletal muscle was sufficient to produce intramuscular nerve growth. Low concentrations of IGFs induced massive neurite growth from enriched embryonic chick motoneurons in vitro. Half-maximal responses required 0.2 nM IGF2 or IGF1, or 20 nM insulin. Similar hormone binding properties of motoneuron processes in vitro were observed. Exposure of adult rat or mouse gluteus muscle in vivo to low quantities of exogenous IGF2 or IGF1 led to intramuscular nerve sprouting. Numbers of sprouts in IGF-exposed muscles were 10-fold higher than in vehicle-exposed or untreated muscles, and 12.2% of the end plates in IGF-exposed muscle (control: 2.7%) had sprouts growing from them. The nerve growth reaction was accompanied by elevated levels of intramuscular nerve-specific growth-associated protein GAP43. Additional properties of IGF-exposed muscle included modest proliferation of interstitial cells and elevated interstitial J1 immunoreactivity. These results suggest that elevated levels of IGFs in denervated or paralyzed muscle might trigger coordinate regenerative reactions, including nerve sprouting and expression of nerve growth-supporting substrate molecules by activated interstitial cells.     

骨骼肌钝挫伤恢复过程中HIF-1α、AMPKα2表达的改变

目的：观测大鼠骨骼肌钝挫伤（SMBI）恢复进程中腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶α2（AMPKα2）、缺氧诱导因子-1α（HIF-1α）的表达变化,探讨SMBI恢复可能生物学机制。方法：雄性Wistar大鼠48只,随机选取6只作为正常对照组;另42只大鼠重物砸伤后肢小腿建立钝挫伤模型后分7组（n=6）,造模后各组分别在伤后12 h、2 d、5 d、7 d、10 d、15 d、30 d取材,检测小腿三头肌HIF-1α、AMPKα2表达的变化。结果：损伤后12 h HIF-1α、AMPKα2表达均明显升高,在伤后15 d开始回落接近正常;HIF-1α、AMPKα2表达的峰值出现在伤后2 d内,伤后5 d后表达量开始下降;除HIF-1α mRNA在伤后2 d组表达出现峰值外,其余时间点二者mRNA与蛋白表达时程变化基本一致。结论：SMBI后,HIF-1α、AMPKα2可能通过参与调解缺氧适应、肌细胞再生、能量代偿起到促进伤后恢复的作用。     

Muscle-Derived Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases 1 and 2 Are Required for the Maintenance of Adult Myofibers and Their Neuromuscular Junctions

The Ras–extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) pathway appears to be important for the development, maintenance, aging, and pathology of mammalian skeletal muscle. Yet no gene targeting of Erk1/2 in muscle fibers in vivo has been reported to date. We combined a germ line Erk1 mutation with Cre-loxP Erk2 inactivation in skeletal muscle to produce, for the first time, mice lacking ERK1/2 selectively in skeletal myofibers. Animals lacking muscle ERK1/2 displayed stunted postnatal growth, muscle weakness, and a shorter life span. Their muscles examined in this study, sternomastoid and tibialis anterior, displayed fragmented neuromuscular synapses and a mixture of modest fiber atrophy and loss but failed to show major changes in fiber type composition or absence of cell surface dystrophin. Whereas the lack of only ERK1 had no effects on the phenotypes studied, the lack of myofiber ERK2 explained synaptic fragmentation in the sternomastoid but not the tibialis anterior and a decrease in the expression of the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) epsilon subunit gene mRNA in both muscles. A reduction in AChR protein was documented in line with the above mRNA results. Evidence of partial denervation was found in the sternomastoid but not the tibialis anterior. Thus, myofiber ERK1/2 are differentially required for the maintenance of myofibers and neuromuscular synapses in adult mice.     

The tetrodotoxin-insensitive sodium current in rat dorsal root ganglia is unlikely to involve the expression of the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel,SkM2

Tetrodotoxin-insensitive (TTX-I) sodium currents have been recorded from newborn and adult rat sensory neurons, but the sodium channel gene(s) responsible for the TTX-I current are unknown. Because SkM2, one of six voltage-sensitive sodium channel genes cloned from rat, encodes the only cloned channel that is relatively resistant to tetrodotoxin, we sought to test whether the TTX-I current in rat sensory neurons is due to the SkM2 channel. We hypothesized that the TTX-I current might be generated from (1) an RNA splicing variant of SkM2, (2) post-translational modification of the SkM2 protein, or (3) interaction with altenate additional channel subunits. SkM2 mRNA expression was examined in newborn rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) by RNase arotection assay. No SkM2 expression was detected. Therefore, we conclude that the TTX-I sodium current in DRG is unlikely to result from the expression of the SkM2 gene.