Multicountry estimation of dietary boron intake

Dietary Reference Intakes are not yet established for boron (B), a naturally occurring trace element in the human diet. Estimated dietary B intakes provide useful information for planning and assessing diets in healthy populations. The countries selected for this study represent a wide variety of dietary patterns and have adequate nutrient databases (with the exception of B) and food consumption data. Large-scale nationwide survey data were provided by the US (1989–1991) and Germany (1985–1989). Survey data from rural agricultural communities of Mexico and Kenya were provided by the Human Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (1983–1986). A B nutrient database was created to include B concentrations for the foods consumed in each country. It incorporates B analytical data from various sources in the US, Finland, UK, Italy, Japan, and China. Each person’s average daily B intake was estimated by linking the B database with the survey food records. Average dietary intake estimates were then generated for various age and sex groups. The estimates for adults in the US, Germany, Mexico and Kenya, respectively, are 1.11, 1.72, 2.12, and 1.95 mg B/d for males and 0.89, 1.62, 1.75, and 1.80 mg B/d for females. Foods that are major contributors to the B intake of each country were also identified.     

Estimation of Dietary Intake of Inorganic Arsenic in U.S. Children

Arsenic is a natural component of the environment and is ubiquitous in soils, water, and the diet. Because dietary intake can be a significant source of background exposure to inorganic arsenic (the most toxicologically significant form), accurate intake estimates are needed to provide a context for risk management of arsenic exposure. Intake of inorganic arsenic by adults is fairly well characterized, but previous estimates of childhood intake were based on inorganic arsenic analyses in a limited number of foods (13 food types). This article estimates dietary intake for U.S. children (1 to 6 years of age) based on reported inorganic arsenic concentrations in 38 foods and in water used in cooking those foods (inorganic arsenic concentration of 0.8 μg/L), and U.S. Department of Agriculture food consumption data. This information is combined using a probabilistic software model to extract food consumption patterns and compute exposure distributions. The mean childhood dietary intake estimate for inorganic arsenic was 3.2 μg/day with a range of 1.6 to 6.2 μg/day for the 10th and 95th percentiles, respectively. For both the mean and 95th percentile inorganic arsenic intake rates, intake was predominantly contributed by grain and grain products, fruits and fruit juices, rice and rice products, and milk.     

Iodine nutrition and breast feeding

A survey of the databanks Medline and Web of science identified studies dealing with maternal and infant iodine nutrition during breast feeding. The iodine concentration of human milk varies widely due to maternal iodine intake. Mean breast milk iodine concentrations are reported as ranging from 5.4 to 2170 μg/L (median 62 μg/L) in worldwide studies. In the few studies that compared length of lactation, gestation length, and parity number, these factors did not significantly affect milk-iodine concentrations. In studies of maternal iodine deficiency, untreated goiter had no impact on breast milk iodine when compared with controls. Iodine in human milk responds quickly to dietary iodine intake, either supplemented or consumed in natural foods. Easily absorbable iodine from foods, supplemental sources, iodine-based medication or iodine-based antiseptic solutions used during parturition, is taken up by the maternal thyroid and mammary glands through the Na⁺/I⁻ symporter system. This transmembrane carrier protein transports iodine against a high concentration gradient. Hormonal iodine in breast milk occurs mainly as T-4, but depending on maternal iodine intake, high concentrations of the inorganic form (iodide) are found. In less developed countries, where natural-food-iodine intake is low, adequate maternal iodine nutritional status depends exclusively on enforcement of food iodination. In industrialized countries, maternal iodine intake has increased as a function of increasing consumption of dairy products. The human infant is sensitive to maternal iodine nutrition during fetal development and later during breast feeding. Environmental factors, not directly related to maternal iodine intake, such as intake of selenium and organochlorine pollutants, can affect thyroid hormone homeostasis in breast-fed infants. In spite of low iodine concentrations found in milk of mothers consuming low-iodine natural foods, long lasting or even life-lasting benefits to the breast-fed infant are demonstrable.     

Dietary chromium intake

Chromium content of 22 daily diets, designed by nutritionists to be well-balanced, ranged from 8.4 to 23.7 μg/1000 cal with a mean ±SEM chromium content of 13.4±1.1 μg/1000 cal. Most dairy products are low in chromium and provide <0.6μg/serving. Meats, poultry, and fish are also low in chromium, providing 2 μg of chromium or less per serving. Chromium contents of grain products, fruits, and vegetables vary widely, with some foods providing >20 μg/serving. In summary, chromium content of individual foods varies, and is dependent upon chromium introduced in the growing, transport, processing, and fortification of the food. Even well-balanced diets may contain suboptimal levels of dietary chromium.     

Vitamin D in foods and as supplements

Numerous studies have shown that the vitamin D status is far from optimal in many countries all over the world. The main reason for this is lack of sunshine. Only a limited number of foods naturally contain vitamin D. Good sources of vitamin D(3) are fish (not only fatty fish), egg yolk, and offal such as liver. Some foods such as milk are fortified with vitamin D in some countries. Dietary vitamin D intake is low in many countries, especially as the dietary sources are limited. The use of supplements is important and seems to be high in some countries. Current dietary intake recommendations are too low to preserve/reach optimal S-25-OHD concentrations, when UVB radiation is not available. We suggest that the recommendations should be increased to at least 10 microg per day in all age groups when solar UVB is scarce. The elderly may need a daily vitamin D intake of 25 microg. If dietary intake of vitamin D is to be increased, food habits will have to change. From a public health point of view it is better to increase the potential sources of vitamin D by fortifying specific products that are consumed commonly in a whole population, or if necessary by especially vulnerable groups. Supplement use is probably the right alternative for vulnerable groups such as infants and inactive elderly in whom this is more easily implemented.     

Human exposure to metals through the diet in Tarragona, Spain

The concentrations of arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), cadmium (cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), tin (Sn), thallium (Tl), and vanadium (V) were determined in a number of food items purchased in zones of Tarragona, County (Catalonia, Spain) near a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI), which has been operating since 1999. Food samples corresponded to the following groups: meat, fish and seafood, pulses, cereals, vegetables, fruits, tubers, whole milk, yogurt, eggs, and sugar. Be and Tl were under their respective limits of detection in all samples. For the analyzed trace elements, the dietary intake by the general population of Tarragona was 458.5 μg/d for As, 14.3 μg/d for Cd, 88.3 μg/d for Cr, 5.3 μg/d for Hg, 2421.4 μg/d for Mn, 138.3 μg/d for Ni, 44.8 μg/d for Pb, 34.6 μg/d for Sn, and 28.9 μg/d for V. Results were compared with those found in a baseline survey carried out in the same area during the construction of the HWI (1996–1998). In general terms, the dietary intake of metals in 2003 was comparatively similar to those found in the baseline survey. For the most toxic elements (As, Cd, Hg, and Pb), it was under their respective Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) estabished by the FAO/WHO.     

Dietary fat increases energy intake across the range of typical consumption in the United States

Objective: The fat content of a diet has been shown to affect total energy intake, but controlled feeding trials have only compared very high (40% of total calories) fat diets with very low (20% of total calories) fat diets. This study was designed to measure accurately the voluntary food and energy intake over a range of typical intake for dietary fat. Methods and Procedures: Twenty‐two non‐obese subjects were studied for 4 days on each of three diets, which included core foods designed to contain 26, 34, and 40% fat, respectively of total calories and ad lib buffet foods of similar fat content. All diets were matched for determinants of energy density except dietary fat. Subjects consumed two meals/day in an inpatient unit and were provided the third meal and snack foods while on each diet. All food provided and not eaten was measured by research staff. Results: Voluntary energy intake increased significantly as dietary fat content increased (P = 0.008). On the 26% dietary fat treatment, subjects consumed 23.8% dietary fat (core and ad lib foods combined) and 2,748 ± 741 kcal/day (mean ± s.d.); at 34% dietary fat, subjects consumed 32.7% fat and 2,983 ± 886 kcal/day; and at 40% dietary fat subjects consumed 38.1% fat and 3,018 ± 963 kcal/day. Discussion: These results show that energy intake increases as dietary fat content increases across the usual range of dietary fat consumed in the United States. Even small reductions in dietary fat could help in lowering total energy intake and reducing weight gain in the population.     

Dietary Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Sweden

Abstract

A duplicate diet study on male and female pensioners in 1970–71 showed mean daily dietary lead intakes of 30 μg and 19 μg respectively. The corresponding cadmium intakes were 10.5μg and 12.9 μg. Analysis of duplicate diets collected during seven consecutive 24-hour periods from 15 women in Stockholm in 1988 showed a mean daily lead intake of 26 μg (range 13–40 μg). The corresponding cadmium intake was 8.5μg (range 5.7–14 μg). Analysis of faeces samples corresponding to the duplicate diets showed similar lead and cadmium contents (mean lead content 24 μg day^?1, range 10–41 μg day^?1; mean cadmium content 8.9 μg day^?1 range 5.5–12 μg day^?1). The median lead and cadmium concentrations in human milk collected in Uppsala were 2 μg kg^?1 and 0.1 mg kg^?1 respectively. The median weekly intakes of lead and cadmium by the breast-fed infants were calculated to be 2 μg kg^?1 body weight and 0.1 μg kg^?1 body weight. Analysis of seven daily diets, together representing the weekly diet of an adult Swedish male, showed a mean lead content of 26 μg (range 15–45 μg), and a mean cadmium content of 10 μg (range 7–15 μg). The mean daily intakes of lead and cadmium found by analysing market baskets prepared in 1987 were 17μg and 12μg respectively. Calculations based on food balance sheet data and levels of lead and cadmium in individual foods showed mean daily intakes of 30 μg lead and 14 μg cadmium per person.     

Should bioactive trace elements not recognized as essential,but with beneficial health effects,have intake recommendations

Today, most nutritionists do not consider a trace element essential unless it has a defined biochemical function in higher animals or humans. As a result, even though it has been found that trace elements such as boron and silicon have beneficial bioactivity in higher animals and humans, they generally receive limited attention or mention when dietary guidelines or intake recommendations are formulated. Recently, the possibility of providing dietary intake recommendations such as an adequate intake (AI) for some bioactive food components (e.g., flavonoids) has been discussed. Boron, chromium, nickel, and silicon are bioactive food components that provide beneficial health effects by plausible mechanisms of action in nutritional and supra nutritional amounts, and thus should be included in the discussions. Although the science base may not be considered adequate for establishing AIs, a significant number of findings suggest that statements about these trace elements should be included when dietary intake guidance is formulated. An appropriate recommendation may be that diets should include foods that would provide trace elements not currently recognized as essential in amounts shown to reduce the risk of chronic disease and/or promote health and well-being.     

Estimation of Boron Intake and its Relation with Bone Mineral Density in Free-Living Korean Female Subjects

In this study, the status of boron intake was evaluated and its relation with bone mineral density was examined among free-living female subjects in Korea. Boron intake was estimated through the use of the database of boron content in frequently consumed foods by Korean people as well as measuring bone mineral density, taking anthropometric measurements, and surveying dietary intake of 134 adult females in order to relatively evaluate the intake of boron as a nutrient to supplement the low level of calcium intake and to verify its relationship with bone mineral density. Average age, height, and weight of the subjects were respectively 40.84 years, 157.62 cm and 59.70 kg. Also, average bone mineral density of lumbar spine L1–L4 and average bone mineral density of the femoral neck were 0.92 g/cm² and 0.80 g/cm², respectively. Their average intakes of energy and boron per day were 6,538.53 kJ and 926.94 μg. Intake of boron through vegetables, fruits, and cereals accounted for 61.72% of the overall boron intake. The food item that contributed most to their daily boron intake was rice. Also, 65.41% of overall boron intake was from 30 varieties of other food items, such as soybean paste, soybeans, red beans, watermelons, oriental melons, pears, Chinese cabbage Kimchi, soybean sprouts and soybean milk, etc. Boron intake did not show significant relation to bone mineral density in lumbar vertebra and femoral region. In summary, the average daily intake of boron was 926.94 μg and did not display significant relation to bone mineral density in 134 free-living female subjects. The continuous evaluation of boron consumption by more diverse targets will need to be conducted in the future.     

Dietary Silicon Intake of Korean Young Adult Males and Its Relation to their Bone Status

Accumulated data suggests a positive effect of silicon on bone health; however, limited research exists on the silicon content of foods. To further the understanding of the relationship between dietary silicon intake and bone health, a food composition database of commonly consumed foods in Korea is required. For quantitative data on the intake levels of silicon, we analyzed the silicon content of 365 food items commonly consumed in Korea using inductively coupled plasma—atomic emission spectrometry following microwave-assisted digestion. To investigate the dietary silicon intake status and to examine the potential role of dietary silicon intake in the bone status of men, a total of 400 healthy Korean adult males aged 19–25 were observed for their diet intake and calcaneus bone density using the 24-h recall method and quantitative ultrasound, respectively. Clinical markers reflecting bone metabolism such as serum total alkaline phosphatase, N-mid osteocalcin, and type 1 collagen C-terminal telopeptide concentrations were also analyzed. Silicon intake of the subjects was estimated as 37.5 ± 22.2 mg/day. Major food sources of dietary silicon in the Korean male were cereal and cereal products (25.6 % of total silicon intake), vegetables (22.7 %), beverages and liquors (21.2 %), and milk and milk products (7.0 %). Silicon intake correlated positively with age, weight, energy intake, protein intake, calcium intake, and alcohol intake. After adjusted for age, weight, energy intake, protein intake, calcium intake, alcohol intake, smoking cigarettes, and regular exercise status, daily total silicon intake had no correlation with calcaneus bone density and the bone metabolism markers, but silicon intake from vegetables had a positive correlation with serum total alkaline phosphatase activity, a bone formation maker. These findings show the possible positive relationship between dietary silicon intake from vegetables and the bone formation of young adult males. Further investigation in a larger (Korean) population and correcting for additional nutritional confounders is required to confirm these findings.     

Effects of nationwide addition of selenium to fertilizers on foods,and animal and human health in Finland: From deficiency to optimal selenium status of the population

Despite different geological features the Nordic countries are generally selenium-poor areas. In each country various factors such as food importation and life-style determine the selenium (Se) intake. Due to an extremely low Se intake in the 1970s in Finland, 0.025 mg/day, an official decision was made in 1984 to supplement multinutrient fertilizers with Se in the chemical form of sodium selenate. Almost all fertilizers used in Finland since 1985 have contained Se. Currently all crop fertilizers contain 15 mg Se/kg. Finland is still the only country to take this country-wide measure.In a national monitoring programme, sampling of cereals, basic foodstuffs, feeds, fertilizers, soils, and human tissues has been carried out annually since 1985 by four governmental research organizations. Sampling of foods has been done four times per year and human blood has been obtained annually from the same (n = 60) adults. The accuracy of analyses has been verified by annual interlaboratory quality control. During this programme the selenium concentration of spring cereals has increased on average 15-fold compared with the level before the Se fertilization. The mean increase in the Se concentration in beef, pork and milk was 6-, 2- and 3-fold. In terms of Se, organically grown foods of plant origin are generally comparable to products produced before the Se supplementation of fertilizers. Milk from organically fed cows is 50% lower in Se than the usual milk. The average dietary human intake increased from 0.04 mg Se/day/10 MJ in 1985 to a present plateau of 0.08 mg Se/day/10 MJ, which is well above the current nutrition recommendations. Foods of animal origin contribute over 70% of the total daily Se intake. The mean human plasma Se concentration increased from 0.89 μmol/L to a general level of 1.40 μmol/L that can be considered to be an optimal status. The absence of Se deficiency diseases and a reference population have made conclusions on the impact on human health difficult. However, the rates of cardiovascular diseases and cancers have remained similar during the pre- and post-supplementation indicating medical and life-style factors to be much stronger determinants than Se. The nationwide supplementation of fertilizers with sodium selenate is shown to be effective and safe in increasing the Se intake of the whole population. Also, the health of animals has improved.     

Does dietary arsenic and mercury affect cutaneous bleeding time and blood lipids in humans?

Fish species may contain considerable amounts of trace elements, such as selenium (Se), arsenic (As), and mercury (Hg). The present study investigated the relationships between dietary intake of these elements and cutaneous bleeding time and blood lipids in 32 healthy volunteers. For 6 wk, one group (n=11) consumed approx 250 g Se-rich fish daily, providing them with an average Se intake of 115±31 μg Se/d, Hg intake of 18±8 μg/d, and As intake of 806±405 μg/d, all values analyzed in 4-d duplicate food collections. To study the effect of Se alone, one group (n=11) included Se-rich bread in their normal diet, giving them a Se intake (135±25 μg/d) that was comparable to the fish group. A control group (n=10) ate their normal diet, providing 77±25 gmg Se/d, 3.1±2.5 μg Hg/d, and 101±33 μg As/d. The dietary As load strongly correlated both with bleeding times and changes in bleeding times (r=0.48,p<0.01 andr=0.54,p<0.002, respectively). Dietary Hg showed a positive correlation with LDL-cholesterol (r=0.55,p<0.01), whereas dietary Hg in the fish group showed a strong negative relationship with HDL-cholesterol (r=?0.76,p<0.01). Selenium seemed to have only a modest effect on bleeding time. Our results suggest that mercury and arsenic from fish may be factors contributing to or modifying some of the known effects of fish ingestion.     

Chromium,selenium, and other trace element intakes of a selected sample of Canadian premenopausal women

Daily Cr, Se, Ag, Cs, Rb, Sb, and Sc intakes of 84 Canadian women aged 30.3±6.1 yr (mean±SD) living in a University community and consuming self-selected diets were determined by analyses of 1-d food composites collected by the subjects. Aliquots of the homogenized food composites were freeze-dried and then analyzed by instrumental neutron activation procedures following irradiation for 72h. In all cases, trace element concentrations in the food composites were non-Gaussian. Median daily intakes were: Cr, 47 μg; Se, 74 μg; Ag, 7.1 μg; Cs, 4.4 μg; Rb, 1.5 mg; Sb 2.0 μg; and Sc, 0.38 μg. Sixty percent and 24% of the subjects received daily Cr and Se intakes, respectively, below the US Food and Nutrition Board safe and adequate range. High Cr density diets were associated with a significantly higher consumption of cheese and dry legumes and nuts (p<0.05). In the high Se density diets, intakes of grain products and breakfast cereals were significantly higher (p<0.05), and intakes of potatoes, table fats, total fat, saturated fat, and oleic acid were significantly lower (p<0.05) compared to the low Se density diets. The low daily Cr intakes evident in this study may be cause for concern in view of the increasing evidence that women may be at greater risk for deficiency of Cr than men because of Cr depletion during pregnancy.     

Trace Metals (Cd,Co, Cr,Cu, Hg,Ni, Pb,and Zn) in Food Supplements of Marine Origin

We determined the concentrations of Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn in dietary supplements of marine origin. Four supplement categories were studied; algae, coral, krill, and shark cartilage. A direct mercury analyzer was used for Hg determinations while acid digestions and ICP-AES were used for Cr analysis and ICP-MS for the other trace metals. Algae are the supplements showing the highest concentrations of Pb, Cr, and Ni with respective means of 1.6 mg Pb/kg dry weight (d.w.), 3.2 Cr mg/kg d.w., and 8.0 mg Ni/kg d.w. Krill supplements have the highest levels of Cd, Cu, and Zn with 0.65 mg Cd/kg d.w., 63 mg Cu/kg d.w., and 50 mg Zn/kg d.w., respectively. Shark cartilage supplements show the highest levels of Hg and Co with mean concentrations of 160 μg Hg/kg d.w. and 73 ± 51 μg Co/kg d.w., respectively. No samples in our study exceeded the provisional tolerable daily intakes set by Health Canada, the joint committee of the World Health Organization/Food and Agricultural Organization, or the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Nevertheless, Ni and Pb in algae and Hg in shark cartilage may end up contributing to a very significant portion of the allowable daily intake—leaving little room for normal intake through food consumption and other exposure pathways.     

Iodine Content of U.S. Weight-Loss Food

ObjectiveThe recommended iodine intake is 150 μg/ day in adults, 220 μg/day during pregnancy, and 290 μg/ day during lactation. Individuals exclusively consuming restricted diets as part of a weight-loss program may be at risk for mild to moderate iodine deficiency. The purpose of this study was to assess the iodine content in meals and snacks from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs, all of which are intended to be the sole source of dietary intake during the desired weight-loss period.MethodsThe iodine contents in the products representing 1 week of all meals and snacks from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs were measured by spectrophotometry. The measured total iodine content in 1 week’s worth of food from each program is reported as an average level per day.ResultsA total of 53 total items were analyzed (29 different items [7 breakfasts, 7 lunches, 7 dinners, 6 snacks, 2 desserts] from Jenny Craig®, 21 different items [7 breakfasts, 7 lunches, 7 dinners] from Nutrisystem®, and 3 different items [1 breakfast, 1 lunch, 1 dinner; each to be intended to be eaten daily for 1 week] from Medifast®). Daily iodine content (mean ± SD) of meals and snacks from the weight-loss programs were 34.2 ± 1.2 (Jenny Craig®), 12.2 ± 0.7 (Nutrisystem®), and 70.1 ± 1.1 (Medifast) μg/day.ConclusionThese results indicate that the dietary content in the foods from 3 U.S. commercial weight-loss programs is far less than the recommendations for iodine intake of 150 μg/day in nonpregnant, nonlactating adults. Individuals following each weight-loss program should be advised to take a multivitamin containing 150μg of iodine daily. (Endocr Pract. 2014;20:232-235)     

Effects of dietary chromium propionate on laying performance,egg quality,serum biochemical parameters and antioxidant status of laying ducks under heat stress

Recent studies have shown that chromium (Cr) could alleviate the negative effects of heat stress on livestock and poultry, but there is little information available to laying ducks. This study aimed to investigate the effects of dietary addition of chromium propionate on laying performance, egg quality, serum biochemical parameters and antioxidant status of laying ducks under hot (average 32 °C) and humid (average 75% relative humidity) summer conditions. A total of 900 66-week-old weight- and laying-matched Shanma laying ducks were randomly divided into five treatments, each with 6 replicates of 30 individually caged birds. The birds were fed either a basal diet or the basal diet supplemented with either 200, 400, 600, or 800 μg/kg Cr as chromium propionate. All laying ducks were given feed and water ad libitum for 5 weeks. The results showed that dietary supplementation with chromium propionate significantly increased the laying rate and yolk colour score (P < 0.05). Treatment with 400 μg/kg Cr as chromium propionate significantly decreased the feed/egg ratio by 5.4% (P < 0.05). Increased supplemental Cr from 0 to 800 μg/kg resulted in an increase in albumen height and the Haugh unit linearly (P < 0.05). Increased supplemental Cr decreased serum cortisol (P < 0.001, linear; P = 0.008, quadratic), heat shock protein-70 (P < 0.001, linear; P = 0.007, quadratic) and glucose (P = 0.007, linear), whereas it increased serum insulin (P = 0.011, Linear), total protein (P = 0.006, linear; P = 0.048, quadratic) and albumin (P = 0.035, linear; P = 0.088, quadratic). Dietary Cr levels increased the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, the total antioxidant capacity linearly and quadratically (P < 0.05). A linear and quadratic (P < 0.05) decrease of the malondialdehyde concentrations in response to dietary Cr level was observed. These results indicated that dietary supplementation of Cr as chromium propionate, particularly at 800 μg/kg could beneficially affect the laying rate, egg quality and antioxidant function, as well as modulate the blood biochemical parameters of laying ducks under heat stress conditions.     

Factors affecting the selenium intake of people in transbaikalian Russia

The selenium concentration in foods grown and consumed and in plasma, red blood cells, and toenails of people living in the district of Chita in the transbaikalian part of Russia were studied in August 1991. Preliminary results from the area have suggested low selenium intakes and the possible occurrence of cardiomyopathy (Keshan disease) in the population. A low selenium concentration in foods grown locally was found: mean selenium concentration in wheat grains was 1, 5, and 28 μg/kg, respectively, in three villages studied, that of oats was beween 3–6 μg/kg, and of cow's milk 10–27 μg/kg dry matter. The selenium concentration of bread was considerably higher, between 87–337 μg/kg dry wt, presumably because wheat imported from the US had been used for baking. Occasional samples of pork, beef, and mutton contained between 32–318 μg selenium/kg dry wt. Low selenium concentrations were observed in samples of soil and river water. The mean plasma selenium concentration of 52 persons was 1.02 μmol/L, including 33 children and 19 adult subjects. The selenium concentrations in red blood cells and toenails were 1.95 μmol/L and 0.61 mg/kg, respectively. No symptoms of heart disease caused by selenium deficiency were observed. It is concluded that the selenium status of people was fairly good thanks to the contribution to dietary intake of imported wheat with a high selenium content. As the selenium concentration was very low in foods grown in the area, the selenium intake of the population will be reduced to a very low level if only locally produced foods are consumed.     

Whole Grain Intakes in the Diets Of Malaysian Children and Adolescents – Findings from the MyBreakfast Study

Background

Diets rich in whole grain are associated with several health benefits. Little is known however, about whole grain consumption patterns in Malaysia. The aim of this study was to assess whole grain intakes and dietary source in Malaysian children and adolescents.

Methods

This analysis is from the MyBreakfast study, a national cross sectional study investigating eating habits among primary and secondary school children throughout Malaysia, conducted in 2013. Children (n = 5,165) and adolescents (n = 2,947) who completed two days of dietary assessment using a food record or recall respectively were included. The whole grain content of foods was estimated mainly through the use of quantitative ingredient declarations on food labels. All wholegrain foods were considered irrespective of the amount of whole grain they contained.

Results

Overall, only 25% of children and 19% of adolescents were wholegrain consumers. Mean daily intakes in the total sample were 2.3g/d (SD 5.8g/d) in children and 1.7g/d (SD 4.7g/d) in adolescents and in the consumer’s only sample, mean intakes reached 9.1g/d (SD 8.6) and 9.2g/d (SD 7.1g/d) respectively. Wheat was the main grain source of whole grain while ready to eat breakfast cereals and hot cereals were the main food contributors. Less than 3% of the children and adolescents reached the US quantitative whole grain recommendation of 48g/day.

Conclusion

Whole grain is consumed by only a minority of Malaysian children and adolescents and even among consumers, intakes are well below recommendations. Efforts are needed to firstly understand the barriers to whole grain consumption among Malaysian children in order to design effective health promotion initiatives to promote an increase in whole grain consumption.     

Salt Content Impacts Food Preferences and Intake among Children

Decreasing dietary sodium intake, which can be achieved by reducing salt content in food, is recommended. Salt contributes to the taste of foods and makes them more enjoyable. Whether a food is liked or disliked is an important determinant of food intake, especially among children. However, the role of salt in children''s food acceptance has received little attention. The impact of salt content on children''s hedonic rating and intake of two foods was investigated in children. Using a within-subject crossover design, we recruited 75 children (8–11 years) to participate in five lunches in their school cafeteria. The target foods were green beans and pasta. The added salt content was 0, 0.6 or 1.2 g/100 g. The children''s intake (g) of all lunch items was measured. The children provided their hedonic rating of the food, a preference ranking and a saltiness ranking in the laboratory. Children could rank the foods according to salt content, and they preferred the two saltier options. A food-specific effect of salt content on intake was observed. Compared to the intermediate level (0.6 g salt/100 g), not adding salt decreased green bean intake (−21%; p = 0.002), and increasing the salt content increased pasta intake (+24%; p<0.0001). Structural Equation Modeling was used to model the relative weights of the determinants of intake. It showed that the primary driver of food intake was the child''s hunger; the second most important factor was the child''s hedonic rating of the food, regardless of its salt content, and the last factor was the child''s preference for the particular salt content of the food. In conclusion, salt content has a positive and food-specific effect on intake; it impacted food preferences and intake differently in children. Taking into account children''s preferences for salt instead of their intake may lead to excessive added salt.