Representation of natural vegetation in protected areas: capturing the geographic range

Current conservation strategies for plant and animal species rarely address the need to protect the species throughout its geographic range thereby capturing potential genetic and ecological variation. We examined the degree that existing protected areas in the western United States satisfied this goal for four widespread vegetation cover types. We used latitude and longitude to stratify the distribution of these types into 16 cells, each of which was further stratified by up to five elevation classes. While protection of some vegetation types was high in parts of their range, it was minimal to nonexistent in other parts. While it is yet to be shown that protecting a given species throughout its geographic range is essential for its long-term existence, in the face of often unpredictable environmental changes, it seems a prudent course to follow. Our results suggest that if full range protection is a conservation goal, the existing network of protected areas may be inadequate for the task.     

Questioning the effectiveness of the Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation strategy: the case of Crete

Aim This study examines the effectiveness of the selected ‘network’ of Natura 2000 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) at a regional scale in Greece, in terms of its representativeness of plant biodiversity. Location The island of Crete is used as a case study because it is considered to be one of the 10 hotspots for biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin. Methods Hotspot analysis and complementarity algorithms are used to define priority areas for conservation and calculate their spatial overlap with the Natura 2000 SACs in Crete. Results The various categories of hotspots contain subsamples of plant categories, used for their definition. Spatial overlap among different categories of hotspots, areas of complementary diversity and Natura 2000 SCAs is low. Main conclusions The results show that the Natura 2000 SACs ‘network’ in Crete seems insufficient to ensure satisfactory representation of the regional plant biodiversity elements.     

系统保护规划和不可代替性分析在区域规划中的应用

在区域规划中应该把保护和发展密切结合起来,才能为实施可持续发展战略奠定基础。遵循系统保护规划和不可代替性分析的观点,内蒙古克 什克腾旗应该建立10个不同类型的保护区,并与有关部门和社区实施共同管理,建设成为一个可持续发展的示范基地。     

Testing a rapid quantitative ethnobiological technique: First steps towards developing a critical conservation tool

Effective conservation programs require data on both biodiversity and resource use. The rapid loss of biologically diverse areas adds urgency to the task. This study tests a forest valuation technique that provides essential data in a very short time on local resource use that can serve as a foundation for integrated conservation and development programming. This rapid interview method was tested by comparison with an intensive six-month technique. The data analyzed included the number of plant and animal species used and the calculated value in dollars per hectare per year ($/ha/yr) of different forest types for 67 families in three communities in the northern Peruvian Amazon. While the rapid ethnobiological method gave an accurate list of the most widely used species, accurate data on the quantities collected of these species and their relative values were substantially different from those in the long-term study. At present, the rapid survey is recommended only when necessary to provide data on the most useful species in order to prevent imminent forest destruction. We urge continued study of rapid methods to improve the accuracy of this potentially important conservation tool.     

Place prioritization for biodiversity reserve network design: a comparison of the SITES and ResNet software packages for coverage and efficiency

Abstract. The place prioritization problem in conservation biology is that of establishing a sequentially prioritized list of places on the basis of biodiversity content. Such a list can then be used to select reserve networks that are designed to be fully representative of the biodiversity of an area as efficiently as possible (for instance, with minimum area or cost). The usual goal is the representation of all chosen biodiversity surrogates up to or beyond a required target, or to the greatest available extent. The purpose of this paper is to compare the respective performances of two place prioritization software packages, SITES and ResNet, on four datasets (distributions of termite genera in Namibia, breeding bird species in the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, vertebrate species in Texas and flora and fauna species that are at risk in Québec), to determine their respective merits. The two software packages implement radically different algorithms: SITES is based on a simulated annealing procedure for finding (local) optima; ResNet uses an algorithm based on rarity and complementarity. This analysis indicates that the rarity‐complementarity based algorithm of ResNet surpasses the simulated annealing approach of SITES with respect to time and completeness. SITES, however, contains other features that are useful in conservation planning. Ways in which the two packages can be used together effectively are suggested.     

Incorporating multiple criteria into the design of conservation area networks: a minireview with recommendations

We provide a review of multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) methods that may potentially be used during systematic conservation planning for the design of conservation area networks (CANs). We review 26 methods and present the core ideas of 19 of them. We suggest that the computation of the non-dominated set (NDS) be the first stage of any such analysis. This process requires only that alternatives be qualitatively ordered by each criterion. If the criteria can also be similarly ordered, at the next stage, Regime is the most appropriate method to refine the NDS. If the alternatives can also be given quantitative values by the criteria, Goal Programming will prove useful in many contexts. If both the alternatives and the criteria can be quantitatively evaluated, and the criteria are independent of each other but may be compounded, then multi-attribute value theory (MAVT) should be used (with preferences conveniently elicited by a modified Analytic Hierarchy Process (mAHP) provided that the number of criteria is not large).     

Maximising the contribution of native-range studies towards the identification and prioritisation of weed biocontrol agents

Abstract  Effective study in the native range to identify potential agents underpins all efforts in classical biological control of weeds. Good agents that demonstrate both a high degree of host specificity and the potential to be damaging are a very limited resource and must therefore be carefully studied and considered. The overseas component is often operationally difficult and expensive but can contribute considerably more than a list of herbivores attacking a particular target. While the principles underlying this foreign component have been understood for some time, recently developed technologies and methods can make very significant contributions to foreign studies. Molecular and genetic characterisations of both target weed and agent organism can be increasingly employed to more accurately define the identity and phylogeny of them. Climate matching and modelling software is now available and can be utilised to better select agents for particular regions of concern. Relational databases can store collection information for analysis and future enquiry while quantification of sampling effort, employment of statistical survey methods and analysis by techniques such as rarefaction curves contribute to efficient and effective searching. Obtaining good and timely identifications for discovered agent organisms is perhaps the most serious issue confronting the modern explorer. The diminishing numbers of specialist taxonomists employed at the major museums while international and national protocols demand higher standards of identity exacerbates the issue. Genetic barcoding may provide a very useful tool to overcome this problem. Native-range work also offers under-exploited opportunities for contributing towards predicting safety, abundance and efficacy of potential agents in their target environment.     

Changing attitudes in nature conservation: the Nature Conservancy and Nature Conservancy Council

An official organization responsible for ecological research and nature conservation was formed in 1949. This paper traces its development and vicissitudes, first as an independent Nature Conservancy, then as a part of the Natural Environment Research Council, and finally as the Nature Conservancy Council. Much has been achieved: ecology is now a household word; there is a strong voluntary tide for nature conservation in the country; and there have been notable achievements in practical conservation. But the dangers to nature in Britain have proved to be much greater than anticipated.     

湿地自然保护区保护价值评价方法

提出了一套侧重水鸟保护的湿地自然保护区保护价值评价方法.该方法建立的指标体系经过专家咨询和会议讨论确定指标,采用层次分析法(AHP)建立了递阶层次结构模型.指标体系共分为目标层1项、系统层5项、准则层11项和指标层26项.将获取资料的湿地自然保护区按国家有关分类标准与原则归为3个类型(海洋与海岸生态系统类型、内陆湿地与水域生态系统类型和野生动物类型),每个类型内的自然保护区再结合自身湿地主体进一步划分为4个小类型(近海与海岸湿地、河流湿地、湖泊湿地、沼泽湿地).实例分析了海洋与海岸生态系统类型中的以近海及海岸湿地为主体的自然保护区,内陆湿地与水域生态系统类型中的以沼泽湿地为主体的自然保护区和野生动物类型中的以河流湿地为主体的自然保护区,并依照保护价值指数进行了等级划分.为湿地自然保护区的保护价值和发展地位,总体规划和改建变更提供了依据.     

The principle of complementarity in the design of reserve networks to conserve biodiversity: A preliminary history

Explicit, quantitative procedures for identifying biodiversity priority areas are replacing the often ad hoc procedures used in the past to design networks of reserves to conserve biodiversity. This change facilitates more informed choices by policy makers, and thereby makes possible greater satisfaction of conservation goals with increased efficiency. A key feature of these procedures is the use of the principle of complementarity, which ensures that areas chosen for inclusion in a reserve network complement those already selected. This paper sketches the historical development of the principle of complementarity and its applications in practical policy decisions. In the first section a brief account is given of the circumstances out of which concerns for more explicit systematic methods for the assessment of the conservation value of different areas arose. The second section details the emergence of the principle of complementarity in four independent contexts. The third section consists of case studies of the use of the principle of complementarity to make practical policy decisions in Australasia, Africa, and America. In the last section, an assessment is made of the extent to which the principle of complementarity transformed the practice of conservation biology by introducing new standards of rigor and explicitness.     

Predicting changes in the abundance of African wetland birds by incorporating abundance–occupancy relationships into habitat association models

Aim To map changes in the abundance of African wetland birds using remotely derived habitat data. We show that abundance–occupancy relationships can be coupled with habitat association models to map changes in abundance. As conservation resources are more easily allocated when spatial and temporal patterns of abundance are known, our method provides guidance for conservation planning. Location Papyrus, Cyperus papyrus, swamps in east central Africa. Methods Presence/absence surveys of six bird species in 93 wetlands were used to construct models predicting probability of occurrence from habitat characteristics. Densities were then determined from surveys in 23 additional wetlands and modelled as functions of occurrence probability. We then used satellite imagery to derive habitat characteristics remotely in two time periods (1984–87 and 2000–03) and used the modelled relationships between (1) habitat and occupancy and (2) occupancy and density, to infer changes in abundance in all c. 30,000 wetlands within the study area. Results Wetlands within the region declined by 8.6% between the two time periods, but by > 75% in regions of high human population density. Bird densities were also highest in these regions, which comprised wetlands subject to high levels of disturbance. The geographical coincidence of high densities and habitat loss and the existence of positive associations between bird density and occurrence meant that birds declined by much more than the average rate of their habitat. Main conclusions Targeting conservation efforts in areas with high drainage would protect a high proportion of the bird populations. Encouraging people to derive income from disturbance to which the birds are tolerant, rather than drainage, is likely to be an effective strategy. Because habitat characteristics are a key driver of abundance–occupancy relationships, we conclude that there is wide‐scale scope to couple abundance–occupancy relationships with remote habitat mapping to efficiently inform conservation planning.     

When to measure plumage reflectance: a lesson from Collared Flycatchers Ficedula albicollis

Sexually selected colour traits of bird plumage are widely studied. Although the plumage is replaced only at one or two yearly moults, plumage colour has long been shown to change between moults. Nevertheless, most studies measure colour weeks to months after the courtship period, typically at nestling rearing, and it is unclear whether these measurements yield relevant data concerning the primary process of sexual selection. Here we analyse repeated spectrometric data taken from male Collared Flycatchers during social courtship and nestling rearing. We show that some spectral traits are not correlated between the two measurements and that within‐individual correlation declines significantly with the likely exposure of the plumage area to damage and soiling. There is an overall decline in spectral trait exaggeration during breeding, but trait decline is not closely related to measurement latency, especially not in the damage‐exposed areas. Finally, sexual selection estimates differ depending on whether they are derived from spectra measured during courtship or during nestling rearing. These results suggest that, contrary to current practice, measurements of plumage reflectance should be made during the primary period of sexual signalling. Spectral trait decline during breeding could also be studied as a possible signal for mates and neighbours.     

Quantitative method for identifying networks of minimum priority sites for protection of rare and endangered plant species in Guangdong,China

The approaches to enlarge the protected areas are deeply embedded in the conservation planning.In practice,however,even in some sites of top conservation priority,there exist problems of inefficient conservation for lack of funding,to say nothing of assisting all species under threat from the viewpoint of conservationists.Identifying priority sites for conservation and establishing networks of minimum priority sites (NOMPS) are helpful for promoting the transition from number and size oriented,to quality and effectiveness oriented practices of biological conservation,and for realizing the target of biodiversity conservation with the most benefits for the least costs.Based on heuristic algorithm and integer linear programming (ILP),we propose a refined method of heuristic integer linear programming (HILP) for quantitative identification of the NOMPS to protect rare and endangered plant species (REPS) in Guangdong Province,China.The results indicate that there are 19 priority sites which are essential for protecting all of the 107 REPS distributed in 83 sites in Guangdong.These should be the paramount targets of financing and management.Compared with the ILP,which uses minimum number of sites as the only constraint,HILP takes into consideration of the effect of species richness,and is thus more suitable for conservation practices though with a little more number of priority sites selected.It is suggested that ILP and HILP are both effective quantitative methods for identifying NOMPS and can yield important information for decision making,especially when economic factors are constraints for biological conservation.     

Quantitative method for identifying networks of minimum priority sites for protection of rare and endangered plant species in Guangdong, China

The approaches to enlarge the protected areas are deeply embedded in the conservation planning. In practice, however, even in some sites of top conservation priority, there exist problems of inefficient conservation for lack of funding, to say nothing of assisting all species under threat from the viewpoint of conservationists. Identifying priority sites for conservation and establishing networks of minimum priority sites (NOMPS) are helpful for promoting the transition from number and size oriented, to quality and effectiveness oriented practices of biological conservation, and for realizing the target of biodiversity conservation with the most benefits for the least costs. Based on heuristic algorithm and integer linear programming (ILP), we propose a refined method of heuristic integer linear programming (HILP) for quantitative identification of the NOMPS to protect rare and endangered plant species (REPS) in Guangdong Province, China. The results indicate that there are 19 priority sites which are essential for protecting all of the 107 REPS distributed in 83 sites in Guangdong. These should be the paramount targets of financing and management. Compared with the ILP, which uses minimum number of sites as the only constraint, HILP takes into consideration of the effect of species richness, and is thus more suitable for conservation practices though with a little more number of priority sites selected. It is suggested that ILP and HILP are both effective quantitative methods for identifying NOMPS and can yield important information for decision making, especially when economic factors are constraints for biological conservation.     

Wheat aging: the contribution of embryonic and non-embryonic lesions to loss of seed viability

A study has been made to identify the contribution of senescent changes occurring in embryonic and non-embryonic (endosperm and aleurone layer) tissues on germination of wheat ( Triticum durum L. cv. Appulo) seed lots of 97, 93 and 70% viability. Measurements of germination and rates of macromolecular synthesis of embryos excised from dry seeds showed that as seed viability declined from 97 to ca 93%, there was a decrease in the capacity of embryos to grow and synthesise protein, RNA and DNA. However, no significant differences were observed between embryos from 93 and 70% viability seed stocks. Changes in nutrients, fresh and dry weights of embryonic and non-embryonic tissues and electrophoretic patterns of endosperm proteins by sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed a reduced mobilisation of reserve material in 70%-viable seeds. α-Amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) production was also decreased. It is suggested that alterations occurring in non-embryonic structures play a significant role in seed viability loss. This role might be mediated by failing nutrient supply, but the involvement of some inhibitor or toxic substance is also possible.     

Benefits of the ballot box for species conservation

Recent estimates reaffirm that conservation funds are insufficient to meet biodiversity conservation goals. Organisations focused on biodiversity conservation therefore need to capitalise on investments that societies make in environmental protection that provide ancillary benefits to biodiversity. Here, we undertake the first assessment of the potential ancillary benefits from the ballot box in the United States, where citizens vote on referenda to conserve lands for reasons that may not include biodiversity directly but that indirectly might enhance biodiversity conservation. Our results suggest that referenda occur in counties with significantly greater biodiversity than counties chosen at random. We also demonstrate that large potential gains for conservation are possible if the past and likely future outcomes of these ballot box measures are directly incorporated into national‐scale conservation planning efforts. The possible synergies between ballot box measures and other biodiversity conservation efforts offer an under‐utilised resource for supporting conservation.     

Adaptive evolutionary conservation: towards a unified concept for defining conservation units

Recent years have seen a debate over various methods that could objectively prioritize conservation value below the species level. Most prominent among these has been the evolutionarily significant unit (ESU). We reviewed ESU concepts with the aim of proposing a more unified concept that would reconcile opposing views. Like species concepts, conflicting ESU concepts are all essentially aiming to define the same thing: segments of species whose divergence can be measured or evaluated by putting differential emphasis on the role of evolutionary forces at varied temporal scales. Thus, differences between ESU concepts lie more in the criteria used to define the ESUs themselves rather than in their fundamental essence. We provide a context-based framework for delineating ESUs which circumvents much of this situation. Rather than embroil in a befuddled debate over an optimal criterion, the key to a solution is accepting that differing criteria will work more dynamically than others and can be used alone or in combination depending on the situation. These assertions constitute the impetus behind adaptive evolutionary conservation.     

Conservation and reservation of non-vascular plants in Tasmania,with special reference to lichens

Conservation management of the Tasmanian flora is now focusing on non-vascular plants. Major problems include the low level of information on the composition of the flora and the low number of competent specialists available to deal with the plants. Collation of information from literature and from collections in herbaria is required to establish exactly which data are available and their reliability. An environmental domain analysis covering all ecosystems would indicate which environments were under-represented or absent from current reserves and where needs for conservation lie. Within practical time-frames, this process is probably the best method of capturing unknown components of the flora whilst also catering for widespread species and those closely associated with particular environments. It also incorporates regional variability. Minor habitats, which are often floristically rich, and very rare species are best dealt with on an individual basis. Basic research into taxonomy and ecology is paramount. Reservation and conservation management must be based on well-established and maintained databases which are in turn based on a coherent taxonomy and sound biogoographical information. It is only by pursuing an active research programme that the necessary accurate information can be obtained and the success of the management procedures can be gauged.