Susceptibility of three different strains of juvenile Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.) cultured at two different temperatures to Vibrio anguillarum and temperature effect on antibody response

Three geographically distinct-reared strains (Canadian, Icelandic, Norwegian) of juvenile Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.) cultured at optimal and super-optimal growth temperatures (12 and 18 degrees C respectively), were challenged with a virulent isolate of Vibrio anguillarum by injection. The halibut were injected intraperitoneally with 100 microl of the bacterial suspension (1 x 10(6) cells per fish). After challenge, temperature and strain-related differences in survival were observed. Canadian and Icelandic halibut cultured at the super-optimal temperature of 18 degrees C were significantly more susceptible to infection than those strains cultured at 12 degrees C. Total mortality at 18 degrees C for the Canadian and Icelandic strains was 56.4 and 61.85% respectively, compared to 32 and 26.6% respectively at 12 degrees C. Norwegian halibut were significantly more resistant to infection with V. anguillarum at 18 degrees C compared to the other strains, with total mortality of 13.3%. There was no significant difference in total mortality of Norwegian halibut at 18 or 12 degrees C (13.3, 25% respectively). The specificity of the antibodies in sera from challenged halibut cultured at 18 degrees C was primarily to LPS. Immunoblots showed the presence of antibodies against O-side chain antigens. This reaction was strongest in sera from the Norwegian halibut strain compared with the Canadian and Icelandic halibut, which suggests that the difference in resistance to challenge may be ascribable to the presence of antibodies to LPS. Specific antibody levels, as measured by ELISA, increased with increasing temperature and strain differences were apparent, however these did not relate to disease resistance.     

A study of Vibrio anguillarum from farmed and wild fish using principal components analysis

Principal components analysis revealed two main groups among 163 Vibrio anguillarum cultures from diseased fish from Norwegian waters. Nearly all isolates from farmed salmonids fell in group I (arabinose positive) but those from wild fish, particularly saithe Gadus virens , more commonly appeared in group II (arabinose negative).     

A medium for presumptive identification of Vibrio anguillarum.

A medium (VAM) for differentiation of Vibrio anguillarum is described. The presence of bile salts, the high pH, and the high NaCl concentration select mainly for Vibrio species. The high salinity and the ampicillin select for a fraction of Vibrio species, and sorbitol fermentation differentiates among those vibrios still able to grow. One hundred ninety-seven of 227 strains of V. anguillarum were identified with this medium. Only 3 of 66 strains of Vibrio that were not V. anguillarum or V. anguillarum-like were recognized with this medium, and any of 7 non-Vibrio strains related to fish diseases or Escherichia coli grew on the medium. It is our contention that the medium described here constitutes an efficient instrument for presumptive detection of V. anguillarum in pathological and environmental samples.     

Characterization of Vibrio anguillarum and closely related species isolated from farmed fish in Norway.

A total of 264 bacterial strains tentatively or definitely classified as Vibrio anguillarum were examined. The strains were isolated from diseased or healthy Norwegian fish after routine autopsy. With the exception of five isolates from wild saithe (Pollachius virens), the strains originated from nine different species of farmed fish. The bacteria were subjected to morphological, physiological, and biochemical studies, numerical taxonomical analyses, serotyping by slide agglutination and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, DNA-plasmid profiling, and in vitro antimicrobial drug susceptibility testing. The results of the microbiological studies were correlated to anamnestic information. The bacterial strains were identified as V. anguillarum serovar O1 (n = 132), serovar O2 (n = 89), serovar O4 (n = 2), serovar O8 (n = 1), and not typeable (n = 1) as well as Vibrio splendidus biovar I (n = 36) and biovar II (n = 1), Vibrio tubiashii (n = 1), and Vibrio fischerii (n = 1). V. anguillarum serovar O1 or O2 was isolated in 176 out of 179 cases of clinical vibriosis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). V. anguillarum serovar O1 was the only serovar isolated from salmonid fish species other than Atlantic salmon, while V. anguillarum serovar O2 was isolated from all marine fish suffering from vibriosis. A 48-Mda plasmid was isolated from all V. anguillarum serovar O1 isolates examined. Serovar O2 isolates did not harbor any plasmids. Resistance against commonly used antibiotic compounds was not demonstrated among V. anguillarum isolates. Neither V. splendidus biovar I nor other V. anguillarum-related species appeared to be of clinical importance among salmonid fish.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Complete sequence and structure of ribosomal RNA gene of Heterosporis anguillarum

The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene region of the microsporidium Heterosporis anguillarum has been examined. Complete DNA sequence data (4060 bp, GenBank Accession No. AF402839) of the rRNA gene of H. anguillarum are presented for the small subunit gene (SSU rRNA: 1359 bp), the internal transcribed spacer (ITS: 37 bp), and the large subunit gene (LSU rRNA: 2664 bp). The secondary structures of the H. anguillarum SSU and LSU rRNA genes are constructed and described. This is the first complete sequence of an rRNA gene published for a fish-infecting microsporidian species. In the phylogenetic analysis, the sequences, including partial SSU rRNA, ITS, and partial LSU rRNA sequences of the fish-infecting microsporidia, were aligned and analysed. The taxonomic position of H. anguillarum as suggested by Lom et al. (2000; Dis Aquat Org 43:225-231) is confirmed in this paper.     

Characterization of heme uptake cluster genes in the fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum

Vibrio anguillarum can utilize hemin and hemoglobin as sole iron sources. In previous work we identified HuvA, the V. anguillarum outer membrane heme receptor by complementation of a heme utilization mutant with a cosmid clone (pML1) isolated from a genomic library of V. anguillarum. In the present study, we describe a gene cluster contained in cosmid pML1, coding for nine potential heme uptake and utilization proteins: HuvA, the heme receptor; HuvZ and HuvX; TonB, ExbB, and ExbD; HuvB, the putative periplasmic binding protein; HuvC, the putative inner membrane permease; and HuvD, the putative ABC transporter ATPase. A V. anguillarum strain with an in-frame chromosomal deletion of the nine-gene cluster was impaired for growth with heme or hemoglobin as the sole iron source. Single-gene in-frame deletions were constructed, demonstrating that each of the huvAZBCD genes are essential for utilization of heme as an iron source in V. anguillarum, whereas huvX is not. When expressed in Escherichia coli hemA (strain EB53), a plasmid carrying the gene for the heme receptor, HuvA, was sufficient to allow the use of heme as the porphyrin source. For utilization of heme as an iron source in E. coli ent (strain 101ESD), the tonB exbBD and huvBCD genes were required in addition to huvA. The V. anguillarum heme uptake cluster shows some differences in gene arrangement when compared to homologous clusters described for other Vibrio species.     

Relationships between plasmids and phenotypes of presumptive strains of Vibrio anguillarum isolated from different fish species

On the basis of plasmid composition as well as serological and biochemical properties, 26 strains identified as Vibrio anguillarum isolated from diseased fish could be assigned to two different groups. Except for three reference strains, these++ strains were isolated from Norwegian fish. The four strains isolated from rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), the only strain isolated from char (Salvelinus alpinus), and three of six strains isolated from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) harbored a plasmid of 47 megadaltons (MDa). Restriction endonuclease analysis showed that this plasmid and the virulence plasmid pJM1, carried by V. anguillarum strain 775, were very similar but not identical. Strains harboring the 47-MDa plasmid had nearly identical biochemical properties and were serotype O1. Strains isolated from reared coastal cod (Gadus morhua), turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), free-living saithe (Pollachius virens), and partly from reared Atlantic salmon differed from strains harboring the 47-MDa virulence plasmid by not containing this plasmid, by having different biochemical traits, and by being serotype O2. Rainbow trout which were experimentally infected with a strain isolated from cod suffering from vibriosis developed clinical symptoms similar to those in cod but quite different from those usually seen in rainbow trout.     

Relationships between plasmids and phenotypes of presumptive strains of Vibrio anguillarum isolated from different fish species.

On the basis of plasmid composition as well as serological and biochemical properties, 26 strains identified as Vibrio anguillarum isolated from diseased fish could be assigned to two different groups. Except for three reference strains, these++ strains were isolated from Norwegian fish. The four strains isolated from rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri), the only strain isolated from char (Salvelinus alpinus), and three of six strains isolated from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) harbored a plasmid of 47 megadaltons (MDa). Restriction endonuclease analysis showed that this plasmid and the virulence plasmid pJM1, carried by V. anguillarum strain 775, were very similar but not identical. Strains harboring the 47-MDa plasmid had nearly identical biochemical properties and were serotype O1. Strains isolated from reared coastal cod (Gadus morhua), turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), free-living saithe (Pollachius virens), and partly from reared Atlantic salmon differed from strains harboring the 47-MDa virulence plasmid by not containing this plasmid, by having different biochemical traits, and by being serotype O2. Rainbow trout which were experimentally infected with a strain isolated from cod suffering from vibriosis developed clinical symptoms similar to those in cod but quite different from those usually seen in rainbow trout.     

Genetic variability of the heme uptake system among different strains of the fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum: identification of a new heme receptor

The ability to utilize heme compounds as iron sources was investigated in Vibrio anguillarum strains belonging to serotypes O1 to O10. All strains, regardless of their serotype or isolation origin could utilize hemin and hemoglobin as sole iron sources. Similarly, all of the isolates could bind hemin and Congo red, and this binding was mediated by cell envelope proteins. PCR and Southern hybridization were used to assay the occurrence of heme transport genes huvABCD, which have been previously described in serotype O1. Of 23 strains studied, two serotype O3 isolates proved negative for all huvABCD genes, whereas nine strains included in serotypes O2, O3, O4, O6, O7, and O10 tested negative for the outer membrane heme receptor gene huvA. A gene coding for a novel outer membrane heme receptor was cloned and characterized in a V. anguillarum serotype O3 strain lacking huvA. The new heme receptor, named HuvS, showed significant similarity to other outer membrane heme receptors described in Vibrionaceae, but little homology (39%) to HuvA. This heme receptor was present in 9 out of 11 of the V. anguillarum strains that tested negative for HuvA. Furthermore, complementation experiments demonstrated that HuvS could substitute for the HuvA function in Escherichia coli and V. anguillarum mutants. The huvS and huvA sequences alignment, as well as the analysis of their respective upstream and downstream DNA sequences, suggest that horizontal transfer and recombination might be responsible for generating this genetic diversity.     

Immunohistochemistry of Atlantic cod larvae Gadus morhua experimentally challenged with Vibrio anguillarum

Farming of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua is one of the most rapidly growing sectors of Norwegian aquaculture. Classical vibriosis caused by Vibrio anguillarum is a problem in cod aquaculture. To prevent disease outbreaks, a thorough understanding of the infection route and the impact of the bacteria on the host is important. The intestinal tract, skin and gills have all been proposed as routes of entry for bacterial infections such as vibriosis. We aimed to further develop understanding of V anguillarum serotype O2alpha infections in cod larvae by elucidation of a possible route of entry, the pattern of infection and its histopathology. Cod eggs were transferred to a 24-well polystyrene multi-dish with 2 ml of sterile aerated 80% (28 per thousand salinity) seawater. Challenge doses were 10(4) and 10(6) CFU ml(-1). Unchallenged larvae were used as controls. Larvae for immunohistochemical examination were sampled daily from each group. In most of the larvae, either no or very few bacteria were observed. Typical findings were clusters of bacteria in the spaces between the primary gill lamellae. None of these bacteria seemed to have adhered to the gills. Intestines of 3 out of 161 larvae examined contained positively immunostained bacteria. Some bacteria appeared attached to the microvilli, but none was observed inside epithelial cells. Only 2 larvae from the low-challenge dose group showed clear signs of histopathology, which occurred in the intestine. It is not possible to draw any conclusions regarding the portal of entry.     

环境因子对鳗弧菌生物膜形成的影响

【背景】鳗弧菌是海产动物弧菌病的主要病原,在海水水域中广泛存在。鳗弧菌为了适应环境变化会生成生物膜,形成自我保护,对其防治是水产养殖行业的一大难题。【目的】探讨致病性鳗弧菌(Vibrio anguillarum)BYK0638生物膜的形成特性,为进一步研究鳗弧菌生物膜形成机制和致病机理提供参考。【方法】采用改良的微孔板法研究静置培养条件下鳗弧菌(V.anguillarum)BYK0638在96孔酶标板上的成膜情况,CCK-8法(Cell counting kit-8)定量检测生物膜中鳗弧菌的活力。【结果】鳗弧菌BYK0638能够在聚苯乙烯酶标板上形成稳定而明显的生物膜,其生物膜的OD450值在24 h达到峰值,60 h后趋于稳定;在107-108 CFU/m L范围内,鳗弧菌生物膜的OD450值显著高于其他试验组(P0.05);25°C时的生物膜OD450值显著高于其他温度生物膜的形成量;在p H 4.0-11.0范围内,当p H值为7.0时鳗弧菌形成的生物膜量最高,在p H值为3.0和12.0时鳗弧菌几乎不形成生物膜;在TSB培养基中加入0.03-2.00 mmol/L Ca Cl2,鳗弧菌生物膜形成量与未添加Ca Cl2对照组无显著性差异;在TSB培养基中加入0.03 mmol/L Mg Cl2,可促进鳗弧菌生物膜形成;Na Cl浓度为5%时,形成的生物膜OD450值最高;鳗弧菌在大黄鱼表皮黏液、肝脏、前肠、后肠组织提取液包被的96孔酶标板上形成的生物膜显著高于其他黏液和组织提取液包被组(P0.05)。【结论】致病性鳗弧菌BYK0638能形成稳定而明显的生物膜,其生物膜形成与外界环境因子变化有密切的关系,培养时间、初始菌浓度、温度、p H、Mg2+、盐度及不同组织和黏液等各种环境因子均能显著影响鳗弧菌生物膜的形成。     

Identification of differentially expressed genes in parasitic phase Miamiensis avidus (Ciliophora: Scuticociliatia) using suppression subtractive hybridization

A multiplex (m-)PCR-based protocol was designed for the simultaneous detection of the main marine bacterial pathogens in Chilean salmon farms: Streptococcus phocae, Aeromonas salmonicida, Vibrio anguillarum and Piscirickettsia salmonis. Each of the 4 oligonucleotide primer pairs exclusively amplified the target gene of the specific bacterial pathogen. The detection limit of the m-PCR using purified total bacterial DNA was 50 pg microl(-1) for V anguillarum, 500 fg microl(-1) for P. salmonis, and 5 pg microl(-1) for S. phocae and A. salmonicida. This corresponded to average limits in the m-PCR sensitivity of 3.69 x 10(5) CFU ml(-1) of V anguillarum, 1.26 x 10(4) CFU m(-1) of S. phocae, and 5.33 x 10(4) CFU ml(-1) of A. salmonicida, while the detection limits for the spiked fish tissues, regardless of the sample (spleen, kidney, liver or muscle) were 2.64 +/- 0.54 x 10(7) CFU g(-1) for V. anguillarum, 9.03 +/- 1.84 x 10(5) CFU g(-1) for S. phocae, 3.8 +/- 0.78 x 10(3) CFU mg(-1) for A. salmonicida and 100 P. salmonis cells. However, high amounts of DNA from 3 bacterial species had a reduction of -1 log-unit on the amplification sensitivity of S. phocae or A. salmonicida when these were present in lower concentration in the multiplex reaction. The assay described in this study is a rapid, sensitive and efficient tool to detect the presence of S. phocae, A. salmonicida, V. anguillarum and P. salmonis simultaneously from pure cultures and tissues from clinically diseased fish. Therefore, it may be a useful alternative to culture-based methods for the diagnosis of infections in fish obtained from Chilean salmon farms.     

Intestinal colonization potential of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)- and dab (Limanda limanda)-associated bacteria with inhibitory effects against Vibrio anguillarum.

Of more than 400 bacteria isolated from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), 89 have previously been shown to inhibit the in vitro growth of the fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of seven of these strains, as well as of intestinal isolates (four strains) from a closely related fish, dab (Limanda limanda), for colonizing farmed turbot as a means of protecting the host from infection by V. anguillarum. In addition, the inhibitory effect of these strains on the pathogen was further studied. Colonization potential was measured by the capacity of the strains to adhere to and grow in turbot intestinal mucus. These parameters were also used to investigate the potential of V. anguillarum to amplify in the turbot intestinal tract. Because of the observed rapid growth of V. anguillarum in intestinal mucus, it can be proposed that the intestinal tract is a site for V. anguillarum multiplication. Strains isolated from the intestine showed greater capacity for adhesion to and growth in fish intestinal mucus than did the pathogen and the skin mucus isolates. All of the isolates released metabolites into the culture medium that had inhibitory effects against V. anguillarum. The results are discussed with emphasis on administering bacteria of host origin to farmed turbot in order to control V. anguillarum-induced disease.     

Monoclonal Antibodies Against Surface Antigens of Vibrio Anguillarum Serogroup 02

Monoclonal antibodies to Vibrio anguillarum 0-group 2 (MAB 02) were used to compare the cell surface determinants of V. anguillarum 0-groups 1 and 2, and V. ordalii. In the homologous system a significant reactivity was found, while MAB 02 clones showed a very low-graded cross-reactivity to V. anguillarum 01 and V. ordalii. The importance of these aspects in the selection of adequate vaccine strains is discussed, with an emphasis on the improvement of vibriosis vaccines.     

Isolation of mutants of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Vibrio anguillarum</Emphasis> defective in haeme utilisation and cloning of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> huvA</Emphasis>, a gene coding for an outer membrane protein involved in the use of haeme as iron source

The isolation of Vibrio anguillarum mutants lacking the ability to use haemin and haemoglobin as the only iron sources, as well as the identification of a gene involved in haeme utilisation are described. One of the isolated mutants defective in haeme utilisation lacked an iron-regulated outer membrane protein of 79-kDa. Although growth on haeme as iron source was completely abolished, the haemin and haemoglobin binding activities remained intact in the mutant, suggesting that the absent protein is not the only one involved in haeme binding. The wild-type phenotype in this mutant was restored by transformation with a cosmid clone (pML1) containing a 21-kb DNA fragment isolated from a gene library derived from the parental strain of V. anguillarum. Sequence analysis of pML1 subclones led to the finding of an ORF, huvA, that codes for a 79-kDa protein (HuvA) and whose sequence shows high identity with haeme receptors from Vibrio choleare (HutA) and Vibrio vulnificus (HupA). The sequence of huvA from the V. anguillarum haeme-utilisation mutant revealed a single mutation, leading to the synthesis of a truncated HuvA protein of 70 kDa. The parental strain and the cosmid-complemented mutant showed a higher degree of virulence for fish than the mutant strain in experimental infections in which fish were previously overloaded with haemin. This finding suggests that haeme uptake plays an important role in V. anguillarum multiplication in fish tissues when free haeme is available.     

Intestinal colonization potential of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)- and dab (Limanda limanda)-associated bacteria with inhibitory effects against Vibrio anguillarum.

Of more than 400 bacteria isolated from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), 89 have previously been shown to inhibit the in vitro growth of the fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of seven of these strains, as well as of intestinal isolates (four strains) from a closely related fish, dab (Limanda limanda), for colonizing farmed turbot as a means of protecting the host from infection by V. anguillarum. In addition, the inhibitory effect of these strains on the pathogen was further studied. Colonization potential was measured by the capacity of the strains to adhere to and grow in turbot intestinal mucus. These parameters were also used to investigate the potential of V. anguillarum to amplify in the turbot intestinal tract. Because of the observed rapid growth of V. anguillarum in intestinal mucus, it can be proposed that the intestinal tract is a site for V. anguillarum multiplication. Strains isolated from the intestine showed greater capacity for adhesion to and growth in fish intestinal mucus than did the pathogen and the skin mucus isolates. All of the isolates released metabolites into the culture medium that had inhibitory effects against V. anguillarum. The results are discussed with emphasis on administering bacteria of host origin to farmed turbot in order to control V. anguillarum-induced disease.     

Overcoming a defect in generalized recombination in the marine fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum 775: construction of a recA mutant by marker exchange.

A defect in generalized recombination has prevented the use of marker exchange for the construction of specific chromosomal mutations in the marine fish pathogen Vibrio anguillarum 775. Through the use of large segments of homologous DNA, we were successful in overcoming this defect and used marker exchange to construct a recA mutant of V. anguillarum H775-3. A recombinant cosmid carrying the recA gene of V. anguillarum 775 in the center of a 25-kb cloned DNA insert was isolated by complementation of methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) sensitivity in Escherichia coli HB101. The recA gene was inactivated by inserting a kanamycin resistance gene into recA, and the mutant gene was subsequently introduced into V. anguillarum H775-3 by conjugal mobilization. Isolation of recombinants between cosmid-borne recA::kan sequences and chromosomal DNA was facilitated by the introduction of an incompatible plasmid, and Southern hybridization was used to verify the presence of recA::kan in the chromosomal DNA of the recA mutant. V. anguillarum carrying recA::kan was considerably more sensitive to UV radiation and to MMS than was its parent, and near wild-type levels of resistance to MMS and UV light were restored by introduction of cloned recA genes from both E. coli and V. anguillarum. These results indicate that recA is required for DNA repair in V. anguillarum and demonstrate the utility of this modified marker exchange technique for the construction of mutations in this economically important fish pathogen.     

Development of a PCR-based method for the detection of Listonella anguillarum in fish tissues and blood samples

A PCR assay for detection and identification of the fish pathogen Listonella anguillarum was developed. Primers amplifying a 519 bp internal fragment of the L. anguillarum rpoN gene, which codes for the factor sigma54, were utilized. The detection limit of the PCR using L. anguillarum pure cultures was approximately 1 to 10 bacterial cells per reaction. For tissue or blood samples of infected turbot Scophthalmus maximus, the detection limit was 10 to 100 L. anguillarum cells per reaction, which corresponds to 2 x 10(3) to 2 x 10(4) cells g(-1) fish tissue. Our results suggest that this PCR protocol is a sensitive and specific molecular method for the detection of the fish pathogen L. anguillarum.     

First report on antibody response of Seriola dumerilii (Risso 1810) challenged with Listonella anguillarum

The greater amberjack, Seriola dumerilii (Risso 1810) is a semi-pelagic fish and a worldwide species; it is considered a promising candidate for the diversification of Mediterranean aquaculture. In this paper an experimental injection with Listonella (Vibrio) anguillarum was performed to study the immune response of S. dumerilii. Antibody titres to L. anguillarum O1 were determined with indirect-ELISA at different times over a period of 42 days. Results showed that the antibody levels against L. anguillarum were significantly higher in the challenged fish compared to the control. They started developing since the 5th day reaching the highest peak on day 20 after injection, indicating a fast response of the immune system. The observed antibody titre was very high versus L. anguillarum if compared to other fish species.     

Agglutination Typing of Vibrio anguillarum Isolates from Diseased Fish and from the Environment

Agglutinating activity was widely distributed among 101 Vibrio anguillarum strains of different origin and three Vibrio ordalii strains from salmonids. The spectrum of cells which were agglutinated comprised yeast cells and human (type O), poultry, guinea pig, and trout erythrocytes, whereas ovine, bovine, and tanned bovine erythrocytes were not affected. Mannose-sensitive hemagglutination, mannose-resistant hemagglutination, and non-agglutinating strains were recognized. The three V. ordalii strains showed mannose-resistant hemagglutination, whereas V. anguillarum exhibited either mannose-sensitive hemagglutination or was non-agglutinating. Among V. anguillarum, sensitivity to d-galactose and l-fucose occurred sporadically. An agglutination typing scheme was developed for strains of V. anguillarum based on the agglutination pattern of human, poultry, guinea pig, and trout erythrocytes and yeast cells. Eight different agglutination types (A through H) were defined. The distribution of these types among fish pathogenic and environmental V. anguillarum strains were studied. The application of the typing scheme in ecological and epidemiological studies and for preventive medical purposes is discussed.