Fatty acid regulation of protein kinase C isoforms in prostate cancer cells

Polyunsaturated fatty acids influence the aetiology of prostate cancer. Their effects on cellular mechanisms regulating prostate tumorigenesis are unclear. Using prostate cancer cells (LNCaP), we determined effects of n-9-OA, n-6-LA, and n-3-EPA on total PKC and its isoforms in relation to cell proliferation and PSA production. PKC-alpha, delta, gamma, iota, mu, and zeta were present in LNCaP cells; PKC-beta, epsilon, eta, and theta isoforms were not. PKC-alpha was detected only in cytosol; PKC-delta, iota, gamma, and mu were present in cytosol and in membranes. Fatty acids increased cell proliferation, total PKC activity and elicited pro-proliferative effects on specific PKC isoforms (PKC-delta and -iota). EPA and LA increased total PKC activity and reduced membrane-abundance of PKC-delta. OA reduced cytosolic and membrane PKC-delta. Only EPA reduced PKC-gamma membrane abundance. Fatty acids enhanced cytosolic PKC-iota abundance but only EPA and to a lesser extent LA increased its membrane content. Changes in PKC-delta, -iota, and -gamma did not affect PSA production.     

Dopamine-induced translocation of protein kinase C isoforms visualized in renal epithelial cells

Short-term regulation of sodiummetabolism is dependent on the modulation of the activity of sodiumtransporters by first and second messengers. In understanding diseasesassociated with sodium retention, it is necessary to identify thecoupling between these messengers. We have examined whether dopamine,an important first messenger in tubular cells, activates andtranslocates various protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms. We used aproximal tubular-like cell line, LLCPK-1 cells, in which dopamine wasfound to inhibit Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase in aPKC-dependent manner. Translocation of PKC isoforms was studied withboth subcellular fractionation and confocal microscopy. Both techniquesrevealed a dopamine-induced translocation from cytosol to plasmamembrane of PKC- and -, but not of PKC-, -, and -. Theprocess of subcellular fractionation resulted in partial translocationof PKC-. This artifact was eliminated in confocal studies. Confocalimaging permitted detection of translocation within 20 s.Translocation was abolished by a phospholipase C inhibitor and by anantagonist against the dopamine 1 subtype (D₁) but not the2 subtype of receptor (D₂). In conclusion, this studyvisualizes in renal epithelial cells a very rapid activation of thePKC- and - isoforms by the D₁ receptor subtype.

     

Nuclear protein kinase C isoforms and apoptosis

The process of apoptosis is regulated at multiple levels through phosphorylation by several different protein kinases. The protein kinase C (PKC) family of isozymes have been shown to exert both inhibitory and stimulatory influences on apoptosis. During the apoptotic process phosphorylative events are known to occur also at the nuclear level. Evidence suggests that PKC isoforms play a key role in some steps that lead to nuclear disassembly during the execution phase of apoptosis. This review highlights the recent progress made in determining the roles played by individual PKC nuclear isoforms in the control of apoptosis.     

Differential regulation of angiotensin II-induced expression of connective tissue growth factor by protein kinase C isoforms in the myocardium

Protein kinase C (PKC) and angiotensin II (AngII) can regulate cardiac function in pathological conditions such as in diabetes or ischemic heart disease. We have reported that expression of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is increased in the myocardium of diabetic mice. Now we showed that the increase in CTGF expression in cardiac tissues of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats was reversed by captopril and islet cell transplantation. Infusion of AngII in rats increased CTGF mRNA expression by 15-fold, which was completely inhibited by co-infusion with AT1 receptor antagonist, candesartan. Similarly, incubation of cultured cardiomyocytes with AngII increased CTGF mRNA expression by 2-fold, which was blocked by candesartan and a general PKC inhibitor, GF109203X. The role of PKC isoform-dependent action was further studied using adenoviral vector-mediated gene transfer of dominant negative (dn) PKC or wild type PKC isoforms. Expression of dnPKCalpha, -epsilon, and -zeta isoforms suppressed AngII-induced CTGF expression in cardiomyocytes. In contrast, expression of dominant negative PKCdelta significantly increased AngII-induced CTGF expression, whereas expression of wild type PKCdelta inhibited this induction. This inhibitory effect was further confirmed in the myocardium of transgenic mice with cardiomyocyte-specific overexpression of PKCdelta (deltaTg mice). Thus, AngII can regulate CTGF expression in cardiomyocytes through a PKC activation-mediated pathway in an isoform-selective manner both in physiological and diabetic states and may contribute to the development of cardiac fibrosis in diabetic cardiomyopathy.     

Activation of IkappaB kinase beta by protein kinase C isoforms

The atypical protein kinase C (PKC) isotypes (lambda/iotaPKC and zetaPKC) have been shown to be critically involved in important cell functions such as proliferation and survival. Previous studies have demonstrated that the atypical PKCs are stimulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and are required for the activation of NF-kappaB by this cytokine through a mechanism that most probably involves the phosphorylation of IkappaB. The inability of these PKC isotypes to directly phosphorylate IkappaB led to the hypothesis that zetaPKC may use a putative IkappaB kinase to functionally inactivate IkappaB. Recently several groups have molecularly characterized and cloned two IkappaB kinases (IKKalpha and IKKbeta) which phosphorylate the residues in the IkappaB molecule that serve to target it for ubiquitination and degradation. In this study we have addressed the possibility that different PKCs may control NF-kappaB through the activation of the IKKs. We report here that alphaPKC as well as the atypical PKCs bind to the IKKs in vitro and in vivo. In addition, overexpression of zetaPKC positively modulates IKKbeta activity but not that of IKKalpha, whereas the transfection of a zetaPKC dominant negative mutant severely impairs the activation of IKKbeta but not IKKalpha in TNF-alpha-stimulated cells. We also show that cell stimulation with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate activates IKKbeta, which is entirely dependent on the activity of alphaPKC but not that of the atypical isoforms. In contrast, the inhibition of alphaPKC does not affect the activation of IKKbeta by TNF-alpha. Interestingly, recombinant active zetaPKC and alphaPKC are able to stimulate in vitro the activity of IKKbeta but not that of IKKalpha. In addition, evidence is presented here that recombinant zetaPKC directly phosphorylates IKKbeta in vitro, involving Ser177 and Ser181. Collectively, these results demonstrate a critical role for the PKC isoforms in the NF-kappaB pathway at the level of IKKbeta activation and IkappaB degradation.     

Signalling by protein kinase C isoforms in the heart

Understanding transmembrane signalling process is one of the major challenge of the decade. In most tissues, since Fisher and Krebs's discovery in the 1950's, protein phosphorylation has been widely recognized as a key event of this cellular function. Indeed, binding of hormones or neurotransmitters to specific membrane receptors leads to the generation of cytosoluble second messengers which in turn activate a specific protein kinase. Numerous protein kinases have been so far identified and roughly classified into two groups, namely serine/threonine and tyrosine kinases on the basis of the target amino acid although some more recently discovered kinases like MEK (or MAP kinase kinase) phosphorylate both serine and tyrosine residues.Protein kinase C is a serine/threonine kinase that was first described by Takai et al. [1] as a Ca- and phospholipid-dependent protein kinase. Later on, Kuo et al. [2] found that PKC was expressed in most tissues including the heart. The field of investigation became more complicated when it was found that the kinase is not a single molecular entity and that several isoforms exist. At present, 12 PKC isoforms and other PKC-related kinases [3] were identified in mammalian tissues. These are classified into three groups. (1) the Ca-activated -, -,and -PKCs which display a Ca-binding site (C2); (2) the Ca-insensitive -, -, -, -, and -PKCs. The kinases that belong to both of these groups display two cystein-rich domains (C1) which bind phorbol esters (for recent review on PKC structure, see [4]). (3) The third group was named atypical PKCs and include , , and -PKCs that lack both the C2 and one cystein-rich domain. Consequently, these isoforms are Ca-insensitive and cannot be activated by phorbol esters [5]. In the heart. evidence that multiple PKC isoforms exist was first provided by Kosaka et al. [6] who identified by chromatography at least two PKC-related isoenzymes. Numerous studies were thus devoted to the biochemical characterization of these isoenzymes (see [7] for review on cardiac PKCs) as well as to the identification of their substrates.This overview aims at updating the present knowledge on the expression, activation and functions of PKC isoforms in cardiac cells. (Mol Cell Biochem 157: 65–72, 1996)     

Akt/protein kinase B isoforms are differentially regulated by epidermal growth factor stimulation

Overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in certain cancers is well established. There is growing evidence that epidermal growth factor (EGF) activates Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) in a phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase (PI3K)-dependent manner, but it is not yet clear which Akt isoforms are involved in this signal transduction pathway. We investigated the functional regulation of three Akt isoforms, Akt1/PKBalpha, Akt2/PKBbeta, and Akt3/PKBgamma, in esophageal cancer cells where EGFR is frequently overexpressed. Upon EGF simulation, phosphorylation of Akt1 at the Ser-473 residue was remarkably induced. This result was corroborated by in vitro Akt kinase assays using glycogen synthase kinase 3beta as the substrate. PI3K inhibitors, wortmannin or LY294002, significantly blocked the Akt kinase activity induced by EGF. Akt2 activity was evaluated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Robust activation of Akt2 by EGF was observed in some cell lines in a PI3K-dependent manner. EGF-induced Akt3 activation was demonstrated by Ser-472 phosphorylation of Akt3 but in a restrictive fashion. In aggregate, EGF-mediated activation of Akt isoforms is overlapping and distinctive. The mechanism by which EGFR recruits the PI3K/Akt pathway was in part differentially regulated at the level of Ras but independent of heterodimerization of EGFR with either ErbB2 or ErbB3 based upon functional dissection of pathways in esophageal cancer cell lines.     

Regulation of protein kinase C by nerve growth factor, epidermal growth factor, and phorbol esters in PC12 pheochromocytoma cells

We have used a permeabilized cell assay and a synthetic peptide substrate (KRTLRR) to specifically monitor the activity of protein kinase C in PC12 cells preincubated with nerve growth factor (NGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), or phorbol esters. Pretreatment of PC12 cells with 1 microM 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate or 1 microM phorbol dibutyrate stimulated the rate of KRTLRR peptide phosphorylation 4.8- and 2.6-fold, respectively. Furthermore, pretreatment of cells with NGF or EGF transiently increased the KRTLRR peptide kinase activity. Peak stimulations of KRTLRR peptide kinase (1.3-2-fold) were observed after 1-5 min of growth factor treatment and returned to control levels within 15-20 min. The KRTLRR peptide kinase activity fulfilled two criteria of protein kinase C. A synthetic peptide inhibitor of protein kinase C inhibited both growth factor- and phorbol ester-stimulated KRTLRR peptide kinase activity. In addition, growth factors and phorbol esters failed to stimulate KRTLRR peptide kinase activity in cells rendered protein kinase C-deficient by long-term treatment with 1 microM 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate. In contrast to the transient activation of protein kinase C, ribosomal S6 kinase, assayed with the synthetic peptide RRLSSLRA, was persistently activated by NGF and EGF. The findings indicate that protein kinase C serves an early and transient role in the molecular actions of NGF and EGF in PC12 cells.     

Different effects of platelet-derived growth factor isoforms on rat vascular smooth muscle cells

The response of rat aortic smooth muscle cells to all three isoforms of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) was studied. 5,000 binding sites/cell were estimated for rPDGF-AA (Kd 0.22 nM), 45,000 for rPDGF-AB and (Kd 0.4 nM), and 31,000 for rPDGF-BB (Kd 0.29 nM). rPDGF-AB and -BB stimulated effectively [3H]thymidine incorporation, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate release, diacylglycerol productions, [Ca2+]i increase, and pHi changes at concentration in the range from 3 to 10 ng/ml. The extent of DNA synthesis stimulated by rPDGF-AA varied considerably, and in all cases higher concentrations than 10 ng/ml were required. rPDGF-AA did not stimulate inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate release, [Ca2+]i increase or pHi changes but induced the production of diacylglycerol, although with a different kinetic compared with that observed with rPDGF-AB or -BB. Apparently rPDGF-AA acts via a different mechanism, generating diacylglycerol without the release of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate.     

Different protein kinase C isoforms are present in the yeast and mycelium forms of Sporothrix schenckii

Protein kinase C (PKC) plays an important role in the control of proliferation and differentiation of a wide range of cell types, and fungi are no exception. Previous results reported by us on the effects of the phorbol ester, 12-myristate-13-acetate phorbol (PMA) and other PKC effector molecules, on dimorphism in Sporothrix schenckii suggested the presence of this enzyme in the fungus and its involvement in the control of morphogenetic transitions. The work summarized here confirms the presence of PKC in yeast and mycelium extracts of S. schenckii. Different isoforms of this enzyme were found to be present in the yeast and mycelium forms of the fungus and were identified by Western blot analysis using affinity purified anti-PKC isoforms specific antibodies: the γ and ζ isoforms were detected in both the yeast and mycelium forms of the fungus, while the β isoform was only detected in the yeast form. The presence of PKC was confirmed biochemically by measuring total enzyme activity in both forms of the fungus. No significant differences were observed for the PKC activity level recorded for both the mycelium and yeast forms of the fungus (p ≤ 0.05). These data confirm the presence of PKC activity in Sporothrix schenckii and constitutes the first evidence concerning the differential expression of PKC isoforms in the mycelium and yeast forms of a dimorphic fungus, supporting the possible involvement of this important signal transduction enzyme in the control of morphogenesis in this fungus. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Nerve growth factor activates kinases that phosphorylate atypical protein kinase C

Activation of atypical protein kinase C by nerve growth factor (NGF) involves phosphorylation. In order to identify kinases that regulate atypical PKC (aPKC), we surveyed PC12 cell lysates for protein kinases that are activated by NGF and which could phosphorylate aPKC. Employing an in-gel kinase assay where aPKC-zeta was copolymerized within the gel matrix as a substrate, three kinases, pp175, pp87 and pp60, were identified as enzymes that phosphorylated aPKC. Phosphorylation of aPKC by these three kinases coincided with NGF-induced activation of the enzyme. Each kinase possessed a unique subcellular distribution pattern and could be activated by either ceramide or H(2)0(2), second messengers that mimic NGF signaling events. Upstream, pp175 and pp60 lie in a ras pathway, whereas pp87 lies in a pathway dependent upon src. Altogether, these findings reveal that the aPKCs are subject to regulation by a novel group of kinases.     

Shear-induced platelet-derived growth factor gene expression in human endothelial cells is mediated by protein kinase C.

Our previous studies have shown that steady shear stress causes a transient increase of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) A and B chain mRNA levels in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). In the present study, we elucidated the signaling pathway of shear stress in HUVEC by examining the roles of protein kineses, intracellular calcium, cyclooxygenase, and guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) in the PDGF gene induction by shear. The protein kinase C inhibitors, H7 and staurosporine, strongly inhibited the shear-induced PDGF gene expression in HUVEC. In contrast, HA1004, a cAMP- and cGMP-dependent protein kinases inhibitor, was only slightly inhibitory. BAPTA/AM, an intracellular calcium chelator, partially (50%) inhibited the shear-induced PDGF gene expression. The cyclooxygenase inhibitors, ibuprofen and indomethacin, were slightly inhibitory. A 35-50% inhibition of shear-induced PDGF gene expression was found with GDP-beta-S, an inhibitor of G proteins. These results suggest that shear-induced PDGF gene expression in HUVEC is mainly mediated by protein kinase C activation and requires intracellular calcium. Furthermore, G proteins seem to be involved in this process, whereas prostaglandin synthesis via cyclooxygenase pathway is not. We propose a mechanism of shear-induced PDGF gene expression in HUVEC: Shear stress, either directly or indirectly (G protein-mediated), enhances the membrane phosphoinositide turnover via phospholipase C, producing diacylglycerol, an activator of protein kinase C. The activated protein kinase C then triggers the subsequent PDGF gene expression.     

Role of diacylglycerol-regulated protein kinase C isotypes in growth factor activation of the Raf-1 protein kinase.

The Raf protein kinases function downstream of Ras guanine nucleotide-binding proteins to transduce intracellular signals from growth factor receptors. Interaction with Ras recruits Raf to the plasma membrane, but the subsequent mechanism of Raf activation has not been established. Previous studies implicated hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine (PC) in Raf activation; therefore, we investigated the role of the epsilon isotype of protein kinase C (PKC), which is stimulated by PC-derived diacylglycerol, as a Raf activator. A dominant negative mutant of PKC epsilon inhibited both proliferation of NIH 3T3 cells and activation of Raf in COS cells. Conversely, overexpression of active PKC epsilon stimulated Raf kinase activity in COS cells and overcame the inhibitory effects of dominant negative Ras in NIH 3T3 cells. PKC epsilon also stimulated Raf kinase in baculovirus-infected Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells and was able to directly activate Raf in vitro. Consistent with its previously reported activity as a Raf activator in vitro, PKC alpha functioned similarly to PKC epsilon in both NIH 3T3 and COS cell assays. In addition, constitutively active mutants of both PKC alpha and PKC epsilon overcame the inhibitory effects of dominant negative mutants of the other PKC isotype, indicating that these diacylglycerol-regulated PKCs function as redundant activators of Raf-1 in vivo.     

Role of protein kinase C in the inhibition by fibroblast growth factor of apoptosis in serum-depleted endothelial cells

Apoptosis in vascular endothelial cells is suppressed by fibroblast growth factor (FGF)1. In order to investigate the signal transduction system that regulates endothelial apoptosis, we studied the effects of several mitogenic factors. Apoptosis occurred in human vascular endothelial cells under serum-free conditions, and FGF inhibited apoptosis without a requirement of any cooperative factors, as distinct from the mitogenic response. Other mitogenic agents, such as epidermal growth factor, transferrin, transforming growth factor beta, and interleukin 1 etc., with the exception of dexamethasone, had no such inhibitory effects. The effect of FGF was mimicked by a phorbol ester and was prevented by an inhibitor of protein kinase C. The results suggest that the FGF and protein kinase C are important in endothelial apoptosis.     

Lipid raft disruption triggers protein kinase C and Src-dependent protein kinase D activation and Kidins220 phosphorylation in neuronal cells

Kidins220 (kinase D-interacting substrate of 220 kDa) is a novel neurospecific protein recently cloned as the first substrate for the Ser/Thr kinase protein kinase D (PKD). Herein we report that Kidins220 is constitutively associated to lipid rafts in PC12 cells, rat primary cortical neurons, and brain synaptosomes. Immunocytochemistry and confocal microscopy together with sucrose gradient fractionation show co-localization of Kidins220 and lipid raft-associated proteins. In addition, cholesterol depletion of cell membranes with methyl-beta-cyclodextrin dramatically alters Kidins220 localization and detergent solubility. By studying the putative involvement of lipid rafts in PKD activation and signaling we have found that active PKD partitions in lipid raft fractions after sucrose gradient centrifugation and that green fluorescent protein-PKD translocates to lipid raft microdomains at the plasma membrane after phorbol ester treatment. Strikingly, lipid rafts disruption by methyl-beta-cyclodextrin delays green fluorescent protein-PKD translocation, as determined by live cell confocal microscopy, and activates PKD, increasing Kidins220 phosphorylation on Ser(919) by a mechanism involving PKCepsilon and the small soluble tyrosine kinase Src. Collectively, these results reveal the importance of lipid rafts on PKD activation, translocation, and downstream signaling to its substrate Kidins220.     

Actions of platelet-derived growth factor isoforms in mesangial cells

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) occurs as homodimers or heterodimers of related polypeptide chains PDGF-BB, -AA, and -AB. There are two receptors that bind PDGF, termed alpha and beta. The beta receptor recognizes PDGF B chain and is dimerized in response to PDGF BB. The alpha receptor recognizes PDGF B as well as A chains and can be dimerized by the three dimeric forms of PDGF AA, AB, and BB. To characterize PDGF receptor signaling mechanisms and biologic activities in human mesangial cells (MC), we explored the effects of the three PDGF isoforms on DNA synthesis, phospholipase C activation, and PDGF protooncogene induction. PDGF-BB homodimer and AB heterodimer induced a marked increase in DNA synthesis, activation of phsopholipase C, and autoinduction of PDGF A and B chain mRNAs, whereas PDGF-AA homodimer was without effect. The lack of response to PDGF AA could be accounted for by down regulation of the PDGF-alpha receptor since preincubation of MC with suramin restored PDGF AA-induced DNA synthesis. Ligand binding studies demonstrate specific binding of labeled PDGF BB and AB and to a lower extent PDGF AA isoforms to mesangial cells. These results are consistent with predominant expression of PDGF beta receptor in MC, which is linked to phospholipase-C activation. The potent biologic effects of PDGF-AB heterodimer in cells that express very few alpha receptors and do not respond to PDGF AA are somewhat inconsistent with the currently accepted model of PDGF receptor interaction and suggest the presence of additional mechanisms for PDGF isoform binding and activation. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.