The good bad wolf—wolf evaluation reveals the roots of the Finnish wolf conflict

This article focuses on the roots of the Finnish wolf conflict by using stakeholder evaluations of the wolf as a tool. The recent growth of the wolf population has highlighted stakeholders’ contradictory objectives and revealed a conflict between the two main stakeholders, conservationists and hunters, in wolf management. The question of hunting emerges as the core of the conflict. The negative evaluation of the wolf by hunters reflects a competitive situation, which is typical of the historical development of wolf management in Finland. In areas with the most abundant wolf populations, hunters view the wolf most negatively. This study clearly demonstrates that the Finnish wolf conflict is rooted in the values of modern society and carries a long historical, practical and ecological background in which humans and wolves compete over resources, mainly the moose. The conflict between hunters and conservationists in wolf management is connected to the appreciation of moose as game and stems from competition between humans and wolves over their prey and the historical presence or absence of the wolf.     

Survival of Colonizing Wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains of the United States, 1982–2004

Abstract: After roughly a 60-year absence, wolves (Canis lupus) immigrated (1979) and were reintroduced (1995-1996) into the northern Rocky Mountains (NRM), USA, where wolves are protected under the Endangered Species Act. The wolf recovery goal is to restore an equitably distributed metapopulation of ≥30 breeding pairs and 300 wolves in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming, while minimizing damage to livestock; ultimately, the objective is to establish state-managed conservation programs for wolf populations in NRM. Previously, wolves were eradicated from the NRM because of excessive human killing. We used Andersen–Gill hazard models to assess biological, habitat, and anthropogenic factors contributing to current wolf mortality risk and whether federal protection was adequate to provide acceptably low hazards. We radiocollared 711 wolves in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming (e.g., NRM region of the United States) from 1982 to 2004 and recorded 363 mortalities. Overall, annual survival rate of wolves in the recovery areas was 0.750 (95% CI = 0.728-0.772), which is generally considered adequate for wolf population sustainability and thereby allowed the NRM wolf population to increase. Contrary to our prediction, wolf mortality risk was higher in the northwest Montana (NWMT) recovery area, likely due to less abundant public land being secure wolf habitat compared to other recovery areas. In contrast, lower hazards in the Greater Yellowstone Area (GYA) and central Idaho (CID) likely were due to larger core areas that offered stronger wolf protection. We also found that wolves collared for damage management purposes (targeted sample) had substantially lower survival than those collared for monitoring purposes (representative sample) because most mortality was due to human factors (e.g., illegal take, control). This difference in survival underscores the importance of human-caused mortality in this recovering NRM population. Other factors contributing to increased mortality risk were pup and yearling age class, or dispersing status, which was related to younger age cohorts. When we included habitat variables in our analysis, we found that wolves having abundant agricultural and private land as well as livestock in their territory had higher mortality risk. Wolf survival was higher in areas with increased wolf density, implying that secure core habitat, particularly in GYA and CID, is important for wolf protection. We failed to detect changes in wolf hazards according to either gender or season. Maintaining wolves in NWMT will require greater attention to human harvest, conflict resolution, and illegal mortality than in either CID or GYA; however, if human access increases in the future in either of the latter 2 areas hazards to wolves also may increase. Indeed, because overall suitable habitat is more fragmented and the NRM has higher human access than many places where wolves roam freely and are subject to harvest (e.g., Canada and AK), monitoring of wolf vital rates, along with concomitant conservation and management strategies directed at wolves, their habitat, and humans, will be important for ensuring long-term viability of wolves in the region.     

Sympatric wolf and coyote populations of the western Great Lakes region are reproductively isolated

Interpretation of the genetic composition and taxonomic history of wolves in the western Great Lakes region (WGLR) of the United States has long been debated and has become more important to their conservation given the recent changes in their status under the Endangered Species Act. Currently, the two competing hypotheses on WGLR wolves are that they resulted from hybridization between (i) grey wolves (Canis lupus) and western coyotes (C. latrans) or (ii) between grey wolves and eastern wolves (C. lycaon). We performed a genetic analysis of sympatric wolves and coyotes from the region to assess the degree of reproductive isolation between them and to clarify the taxonomic status of WGLR wolves. Based on data from maternal, paternal and bi‐parental genetic markers, we demonstrate a clear genetic distinction between sympatric wolves and coyotes and conclude that they are reproductively isolated and that wolf–coyote hybridization in the WGLR is uncommon. The data reject the hypothesis that wolves in the WGLR derive from hybridization between grey wolves and western coyotes, and we conclude that the extant WGLR wolf population is derived from hybridization between grey wolves and eastern wolves. Grey‐eastern wolf hybrids (C. lupus × lycaon) comprise a substantial population that extends across Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and western Ontario. These findings have important implications for the conservation and management of wolves in North America, specifically concerning the overestimation of grey wolf numbers in the United States and the need to address policies for hybrids.     

Population Viability, Nature Reserves, and the Outlook for Gray Wolf Conservation in North America

Theoretical work on population viability and extinction probabilities, empirical data from Canis lupus (gray wolf) populations, and expert opinion provide only general and conflicting conclusions about the number of wolves and the size of areas needed for conservation of wolf populations. There is no threshold population size or proven reserve design that guarantees long-term (century or more) survival for a gray wolf population. Most theoretical analyses of population viability have assumed a single, isolated population and lack of management intervention, neither of which is likely for wolves. Data on survival of actual wolf populations suggest greater resiliency than is indicated by theory. In our view, the previous theoretical treatments of population viability have not been appropriate to wolves, have contributed little to their conservation, and have created unnecessary dilemmas for wolf recovery programs by overstating the required population size. Nonetheless, viability as commonly understood may be problematic for small populations at the fringe of or outside the contiguous species range, unless they are part of a metapopulation. The capability of existing nature reserves to support viable wolf populations appears related to a variety of in situ circumstances, including size, shape and topography of the reserve; productivity, numbers, dispersion, and seasonal movement of prey; extent of poaching inside; degree of persecution outside; exposure to enzootica; attitudes of local people; and proximity to other wolf populations. We estimate that a population of 100 or more wolves and a reserve of several thousand square kilometers may be necessary to maintain a viable population in complete isolation, although 3000 km² or even 500–1000 km² may be adequate under favorable circumstances. In most cases, management intervention is probably necessary to assure the viability of relatively small, isolated populations. Because most reserves may be inadequate by themselves to ensure the long-term survival of wolf populations, favorable human attitudes toward the species and its management must be recognized as paramount, and cooperation of neighboring management jurisdictions will be increasingly important.     

Coexistence of wolves and humans in a densely populated region (Lower Saxony,Germany)

Since the first sporadic occurrences of grey wolves (Canis lupus) west of the Polish border in 1996, wolves have shown a rapid population recovery in Germany. Wolves are known to avoid people and wolf attacks on humans are very rare worldwide. However, the subjectively perceived threat is considerable, especially as food-conditioned habituation to humans occurs sporadically. Lower Saxony (Germany) has an exceedingly higher human population density than most other regions with territorial wolves; thus, the potential for human–wolf conflicts is higher. Using hunters’ wildlife survey data from 455 municipalities and two years (2014–2015) and data from the official wolf monitoring (557 confirmed wolf presences and 500 background points) collected between 2012–2015, grey wolf habitat selection was modelled using generalized additive models with respect to human population density, road density, forest cover and roe deer density. Moreover, we tested whether habitat use changed in response to human population and road density between 2012/2013 and 2014/2015.Wolves showed a preference for areas of low road density. Human population density was less important as a covariate in the model of the survey data. Areas with higher prey abundance (5–10 roe deer/km²) and areas with >20% forest cover were preferred wolf habitats. Wolves were mostly restricted to areas with the lowest road and human population densities. However, between the two time periods, avoidance of human density decreased significantly.Recolonization of Germany is still in its early stages and it is unclear where this process will halt. To-date authorities mainly concentrate on monitoring measures. However, to avoid conflict, recolonization will require more stringent management of wolf populations and an improved information strategy for rural populations.     

Estimation of Successful Breeding Pairs for Wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains,USA

Abstract: Under the Endangered Species Act, documenting recovery and federally mandated population levels of wolves (Canis lupus) in the Northern Rocky Mountains (NRM) requires monitoring wolf packs that successfully recruit young. United States Fish and Wildlife Service regulations define successful breeding pairs as packs estimated to contain an adult male and female, accompanied by ≥2 pups on 31 December of a given year. Monitoring successful breeding pairs will become more difficult following proposed delisting of NRM wolves; alternatives to historically intensive methods, appropriate to the different ecological and regulatory context following delisting, are required. Because pack size is easier to monitor than pack composition, we estimated probability a pack would contain a successful breeding pair based on its size for wolf populations inhabiting 6 areas in the NRM. We also evaluated the extent to which differences in demography of wolves and levels of human-caused mortality among the areas influenced the probability of packs of different sizes would contain successful breeding pairs. Probability curves differed among analysis areas, depending primarily on levels of human-caused mortality, secondarily on annual population growth rate, and little on annual population density. Probabilities that packs contained successful breeding pairs were more uniformly distributed across pack sizes in areas with low levels of human mortality and stable populations. Large packs in areas with high levels of human-caused mortality and high annual growth rates had relatively high probabilities of containing breeding pairs whereas those for small packs were relatively low. Our approach can be used by managers to estimate number of successful breeding pairs in a population where number of packs and their sizes are known. Following delisting of NRM wolves, human-caused mortality is likely to increase, resulting in more small packs with low probabilities of containing breeding pairs. Differing contributions of packs to wolf population growth based on their size suggests monitoring successful breeding pairs will provide more accurate insights into population dynamics of wolves than will monitoring number of packs or individuals only.     

Molecular genetics of the most endangered canid: the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis

The world's most endangered canid is the Ethiopian wolf Canis simensis , which is found in six isolated areas of the Ethiopian highlands with a total population of no more than 500 individuals. Ethiopian wolf populations are declining due to habitat loss and extermination by humans. Moreover, in at least one population, Ethiopian wolves are sympatric with domestic dogs, which may hybridize with them, compete for food, and act as disease vectors. Using molecular techniques, we address four questions concerning Ethiopian wolves that have conservation implications. First, we determine the relationships of Ethiopian wolves to other wolf-like canids by phylogenetic analysis of 2001 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence. Our results suggest that the Ethiopian wolf is a distinct species more closely related to gray wolves and coyotes than to any African canid. The mtDNA sequence similarity with gray wolves implies that the Ethiopian wolf may hybridize with domestic dogs, a recent derivative of the gray wolf. We examine this possibility through mtDNA restriction fragment analysis and analysis of nine microsatellite loci in populations of Ethiopian wolves. The results imply that hybridization has occurred between female Ethiopian wolves and male domestic dogs in one population. Finally, we assess levels of variability within and between two Ethiopian wolf populations. Although these closely situated populations are not differentiated, the level of variability in both is low, suggesting long-term effective population sizes of less than a few hundred individuals. We recommend immediate captive breeding of Ethiopian wolves to protect their gene pool from dilution and further loss of genetic variability.     

Identity-Driven Differences in Stakeholder Concerns about Hunting Wolves

Whereas past wolf management in the United States was restricted to recovery, managers must now contend with publicly contentious post-recovery issues including regulated hunting seasons. Understanding stakeholder concerns associated with hunting can inform stakeholder engagement, communication, and policy development and evaluation. Social identity theory (SIT) has been used to understand how groups interact, why they conflict, and how collaboration may be achieved. Applying SIT to stakeholder conflicts about wolf hunting may help delineate groups according to their concern about, support for or opposition to the policy choice of hunting wolves. Our objective was to assess concerns about hunting as a tool to resolve conflict in Michigan, using SIT as a framework. We used a mixed-modal sampling approach (e.g., paper, Internet) with wolf hunting-related public meeting participants in March 2013. Survey questions focused on 12 concerns previously identified as associated with hunting as a management tool to resolve conflict. Respondents (n  =  666) cared greatly about wolves but were divided over hunting wolves. Wolf conflicts, use of science in policy decisions, and maintaining a wolf population were the highest ranked concerns. Principle components analysis reduced concerns into three factors that explained 50.7% of total variance; concerns crystallized over justifications for hunting. General linear models revealed a lack of geographic influence on care, fear and support for hunting related to wolves. These findings challenge assumptions about regional differences and suggest a strong role for social identity in driving dichotomized public perceptions in wildlife management.     

Y-chromosome microsatellite variation in Italian wolves: A contribution to the study of wolf-dog hybridization patterns

One major concern in wolf (Canis lupus) conservation is the risk of genetic contamination due to crossbreeding with domestic dogs. Although genetic monitoring of wolf populations has become widely used, the behavioural mechanisms involved in wolf-dog hybridization and the detrimental effects of genetic introgression are poorly known. In this study we analysed Y-chromosome microsatellite variation in the recovering Italian wolf population and detected strikingly different allele frequencies between wolves and dogs. Four Y haplotypes were found in 74 analysed male wolves, and all of them were present in a focus wolf population in the Apennines. On the other hand, only 1 haplotype was found in the recolonizing wolf population from the Western Alps. The most common haplotype in a sample of domestic dogs, was also found in 5 wolves, 2 of which revealing a signature of recent hybridization. Moreover, another suspect hybrid carried a private haplotype of possible canine origin. These results give support to the idea that female wolves can breed with male stray dogs in the wild. The Y-chromosome variation in Italian wolves contrasts with the previously observed lack of mitochondrial variation. Further investigations are needed to clarify at what extent historical or recent wolf-dog hybridization events may have contributed to the observed haplotype diversity. In conclusion, the two molecular markers employed in this study represent effective means to trace directional genetic introgression into the wolves male lineage and have the noteworthy advantage of being suitable for analyses on low-quality DNA samples.     

Population genetic structure of wolves in the northwestern Dinaric‐Balkan region

The Balkan Peninsula and the Dinaric Mountains possess extraordinary biodiversity and support one of the largest and most diverse wolf (Canis lupus) populations in Europe. Results obtained with diverse genetic markers show west‐east substructure, also seen in various other species, despite the absence of obvious barriers to movement. However, the spatial extent of the genetic clusters remains unresolved, and our aim was to combine fine‐scale sampling with population and spatial genetic analyses to improve resolution of wolf genetic clusters. We analyzed 16 autosomal microsatellites from 255 wolves sampled in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH), and Serbia and documented three genetic clusters. These comprised (1) Slovenia and the regions of Gorski kotar and Lika in Croatia, (2) the region of Dalmatia in southern Croatia and BIH, and (3) Serbia. When we mapped the clusters geographically, we observed west‐east genetic structure across the study area, together with some specific structure in BIH–Dalmatia. We observed that cluster 1 had a smaller effective population size, consistent with earlier reports of population recovery since the 1980s. Our results provide foundation for future genomic studies that would further resolve the observed west‐east population structure and its evolutionary history in wolves and other taxa in the region and identify focal areas for habitat conservation. They also have immediate importance for conservation planning for the wolves in one of the most important parts of the species’ European range.     

Distribution, status and conservation of Indian gray wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) in Karnataka, India

The Indian gray wolf Canis lupus pallipes is the major large carnivore in the plains of Karnataka, India. We carried out a study on its distribution and status from November 2001 to July 2004. We estimated 555 wolves occupying about 123 330 km² of the state. In the past 40 years, wolves have disappeared from the southern plateau from an area of about 31 801 km². Their distribution is now largely restricted to the north-eastern dry plains. The wolf has also disappeared in recent years from some 'protected areas' such as Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, and their present population is largely found in 'non-protected' areas. Blackbucks are the only natural prey of wolves in Karnataka, but their density in most parts of the state is extremely low. The major prey species is domestic livestock, especially sheep. The available 'remote area' (forests or rocky terrains) in the wolf-occupied regions determined the status of the wolf. Killing of adult wolves and pups was common throughout the range of the wolf. However, such killings were made largely by local sheepherders with small sheep holdings and not by nomadic shepherds who maintained large sheep herds. The forests in the north-eastern parts of the state exist in small patches every few kilometers. Because each wolf pack ranges over large distances and is by and large a commensal species, we propose that the management of these small forest patches, considering them as components of a larger landscape, is the only effective conservation practice for the wolf. Although existing locally in low densities, because of a large ranging area of a single pack, the seemingly isolated wolf packs can become parts of a large metapopulation, providing a sustainable population.     

Wolf population genetics in Europe: a systematic review,meta‐analysis and suggestions for conservation and management

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is an iconic large carnivore that has increasingly been recognized as an apex predator with intrinsic value and a keystone species. However, wolves have also long represented a primary source of human–carnivore conflict, which has led to long‐term persecution of wolves, resulting in a significant decrease in their numbers, genetic diversity and gene flow between populations. For more effective protection and management of wolf populations in Europe, robust scientific evidence is crucial. This review serves as an analytical summary of the main findings from wolf population genetic studies in Europe, covering major studies from the ‘pre‐genomic era’ and the first insights of the ‘genomics era’. We analyse, summarize and discuss findings derived from analyses of three compartments of the mammalian genome with different inheritance modes: maternal (mitochondrial DNA), paternal (Y chromosome) and biparental [autosomal microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)]. To describe large‐scale trends and patterns of genetic variation in European wolf populations, we conducted a meta‐analysis based on the results of previous microsatellite studies and also included new data, covering all 19 European countries for which wolf genetic information is available: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Belarus, Russia, Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, Spain and Portugal. We compared different indices of genetic diversity in wolf populations and found a significant spatial trend in heterozygosity across Europe from south‐west (lowest genetic diversity) to north‐east (highest). The range of spatial autocorrelation calculated on the basis of three characteristics of genetic diversity was 650?850 km, suggesting that the genetic diversity of a given wolf population can be influenced by populations up to 850 km away. As an important outcome of this synthesis, we discuss the most pressing issues threatening wolf populations in Europe, highlight important gaps in current knowledge, suggest solutions to overcome these limitations, and provide recommendations for science‐based wolf conservation and management at regional and Europe‐wide scales.     

Dispersal Behavior and the Connectivity Between Wolf Populations in Northern Europe

ABSTRACT The isolated gray wolf (Canis lupus) population of the Scandinavian Peninsular is suffering from inbreeding depression. We studied dispersal of 35 wolves fitted with very high frequency (20) or Global Positioning System—global system for mobile (15) radiocollars in the neighboring Finnish wolf population. The growing wolf population in Finland has high numbers of dispersing individuals that could potentially disperse into the Scandinavian population. About half (53%) of the dispersing wolves moved total distances that could have reached the Scandinavian population if they had been straight-line moves, but because of the irregular pattern of movements, we detected no wolves successfully dispersing to the Scandinavian population. Dispersal to the Scandinavian population was also limited by high mortality of wolves in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) management areas and by dispersal to Bothnian Bay at times of the year when ice was not present. We suggest that when a small wolf population is separated from source populations by distance, barriers, and human exploitation, wildlife managers could promote the population's viability by limiting harvest in the peripheral areas or by introducing wolves from the source population.     

Legal protection of wolves in Poland: implications for the status of the wolf population

Legal protection of wolves (Canis lupus) in Poland was implemented in 1998 after 23 years of management as a game species. Wolves occurring in Poland were interconnected with larger populations in the Carpathian Mountains and Belarus, Baltic States and Russia, stable in numbers, and were not considered endangered before the change in legal status affording protection from hunting. Parties calling for wolf protection wanted to stop killing of wolves because of their symbolic nature, but did not have particular management goals to achieve. The government did not accompany the change in legal status by management plan, and therefore, the ban on wolf hunting was weakly enforced. A wolf distribution monitoring demonstrated that wolf range had not expanded 9 years after the hunting ban was implemented, and no increase in wolf numbers was observed. This failure to recover may be explained by: (1) a significant (up to 35%) reduction in the wolves’ prey base 6 years before wolf hunting was stopped, (2) weak enforcement of the protection law, resulting in lack of poaching control of wolves, (3) probable increasing fragmentation and isolation of wolf habitat caused by rapid economic growth in Poland. Inconsistent application of current management policy toward wolves resulted in weak enforcement of regulations and promoted negative attitudes toward the species. To improve the status of wolves in Poland, I recommend a flexible wolf management planning framework that involves and addresses attitudes of hunters and sheep herders, includes a framework to promote strong law enforcement, and consistent, fair compensation for livestock killed by wolves.     

Genetic assessment of the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus captive breeding program

The main goal of ex situ conservation programs is to improve the chances of long term survival of natural populations by founding and managing captive colonies that can serve as a source of individuals for future reintroductions or to reinforce existing populations. The degree in which a captive breeding program has captured the genetic diversity existing in the source wild population has seldom been evaluated. In this study we evaluate the genetic diversity in wild and captive populations of the Iberian wolf, Canis lupus signatus, in order to assess how much genetic diversity is being preserved in the ongoing ex situ conservation program for this subspecies. A sample of domestic dogs was also included in the analysis for comparison. Seventy-four wolves and 135 dogs were genotyped at 13 unlinked microsatellite loci. The results show that genetic diversity in Iberian wolves is comparable in magnitude to that of other wild populations of gray wolf. Both the wild and the captive Iberian wolf populations have a similarly high genetic diversity indicating that no substantial loss of diversity has occurred in the captive-breeding program. The effective number of founders of the program was estimated as ∼ ∼16, suggesting that all founders in the studbook pedigree were genetically independent. Our results emphasize also the genetic divergence between wolves and domestic dogs and indicate that our set of 13 microsatellite loci provide a powerful diagnostic test to distinguish wolves, dogs and their hybrids.     

Diet of wolves <Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis> returning to Hungary

At the end of the nineteenth century, the wolf Canis lupus was extinct in Hungary and in recent decades has returned to the northern highland area of the country. The diet of wolves living in groups in Aggteleki National Park was investigated using scat analysis (n = 81 scats) and prey remains (n = 31 carcasses). Throughout the year wolves (average, minimum two wolves per year) consumed mostly wild-living ungulates (mean percent of biomass consumed, B% 97.2%; relative frequency of occurrence, %O 74.0%). The wild boar Sus scrofa was the most common prey item found in wolf scat (%B 35.6%) and is also the most commonly occurring ungulate in the study areas. The second most commonly occurring prey item in wolf scat was red deer Cervus elaphus (B% 32.8%). Conversely, prey remain analyses revealed wild boar as the second most commonly utilised prey species (%O 16.1%) after red deer (%O 67.7%). The roe deer Capreolus capreolus that occurs at lower population densities was the third most commonly utilised prey species. The importance of low population density mouflon Ovis aries, livestock and other food types was low. The results are similar to those found in the northern part of the Carpathian Mountains.     

Conflict Misleads Large Carnivore Management and Conservation: Brown Bears and Wolves in Spain

Large carnivores inhabiting human-dominated landscapes often interact with people and their properties, leading to conflict scenarios that can mislead carnivore management and, ultimately, jeopardize conservation. In northwest Spain, brown bears Ursus arctos are strictly protected, whereas sympatric wolves Canis lupus are subject to lethal control. We explored ecological, economic and societal components of conflict scenarios involving large carnivores and damages to human properties. We analyzed the relation between complaints of depredations by bears and wolves on beehives and livestock, respectively, and bear and wolf abundance, livestock heads, number of culled wolves, amount of paid compensations, and media coverage. We also evaluated the efficiency of wolf culling to reduce depredations on livestock. Bear damages to beehives correlated positively to the number of female bears with cubs of the year. Complaints of wolf predation on livestock were unrelated to livestock numbers; instead, they correlated positively to the number of wild ungulates harvested during the previous season, the number of wolf packs, and to wolves culled during the previous season. Compensations for wolf complaints were fivefold higher than for bears, but media coverage of wolf damages was thirtyfold higher. Media coverage of wolf damages was unrelated to the actual costs of wolf damages, but the amount of news correlated positively to wolf culling. However, wolf culling was followed by an increase in compensated damages. Our results show that culling of the wolf population failed in its goal of reducing damages, and suggest that management decisions are at least partly mediated by press coverage. We suggest that our results provide insight to similar scenarios, where several species of large carnivores share the landscape with humans, and management may be reactive to perceived conflicts.     

Size‐assortative choice and mate availability influences hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)

Anthropogenic hybridization of historically isolated taxa has become a primary conservation challenge for many imperiled species. Indeed, hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) poses a significant challenge to red wolf recovery. We considered seven hypotheses to assess factors influencing hybridization between red wolves and coyotes via pair‐bonding between the two species. Because long‐term monogamy and defense of all‐purpose territories are core characteristics of both species, mate choice has long‐term consequences. Therefore, red wolves may choose similar‐sized mates to acquire partners that behave similarly to themselves in the use of space and diet. We observed multiple factors influencing breeding pair formation by red wolves and found that most wolves paired with similar‐sized conspecifics and wolves that formed congeneric pairs with nonwolves (coyotes and hybrids) were mostly female wolves, the smaller of the two sexes. Additionally, we observed that lower red wolf abundance relative to nonwolves and the absence of helpers increased the probability that wolves consorted with nonwolves. However, successful pairings between red wolves and nonwolves were associated with wolves that maintained small home ranges. Behaviors associated with territoriality are energetically demanding and behaviors (e.g., aggressive interactions, foraging, and space use) involved in maintaining territories are influenced by body size. Consequently, we propose the hypothesis that size disparities between consorting red wolves and coyotes influence positive assortative mating and may represent a reproductive barrier between the two species. We offer that it may be possible to maintain wild populations of red wolves in the presence of coyotes if management strategies increase red wolf abundance on the landscape by mitigating key threats, such as human‐caused mortality and hybridization with coyotes. Increasing red wolf abundance would likely restore selection pressures that increase mean body and home‐range sizes of red wolves and decrease hybridization rates via reduced occurrence of congeneric pairs.     

The genetic legacy of extirpation and re-colonization in Vancouver Island wolves

Hybridization between wild and domestic species is of conservation concern because it can result in the loss of adaptations and/or disappearance of a distinct taxon. Wolves from Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Canada), have been subject to several eradication campaigns during the twentieth century and were considered virtually extirpated between 1950 and 1970. In this study, we use control region mitochondrial DNA sequences and 13 autosomal microsatellite loci to characterize Vancouver Island wolves as well as dogs from British Columbia. We observe a turnover in the haplotypes of wolves sampled before and after the 1950–1970 period, when there was no permanent wolf population on the island, supporting the probable local extinction of wolves on Vancouver Island during this time, followed by re-colonization of the island by wolves from mainland British Columbia. In addition, we report the presence of a domestic dog mtDNA haplotype in three individuals eliminated in 1986 that were morphologically identified as wolves. Here we show that Vancouver Island wolves were also identified as wolves based on autosomal microsatellite data. We attribute the hybridization event to the episodically small size of this population during the re-colonization event. Our results demonstrate that at least one female hybrid offspring, resulting from a cross of a male wolf and a female dog or a female hybrid pet with dog mtDNA, successfully introgressed into the wolf population. No dog mtDNA has been previously reported in a population of wild wolves. Genetic data show that Vancouver Island wolves are distinct from dogs and thus should be recognized as a population of wild wolves. We suggest that the introgression took place due to the Allee effect, specifically a lack of mates when population size was low. Our findings exemplify how small populations are at risk of hybridization.     

Insular and disjunct distribution of the Arctic wolf in Greenland, 1978�C1998

Little research has been conducted on the spatial and temporal distribution of wolves in the High Arctic, and the processes that influence distributional patterns are not well understood. The present study addressed this information void in north and east Greenland by determining bi-seasonal distribution patterns and core areas based upon 303 sightings of wolves or their tracks during 1978–1998. The data suggested that this wolf population were predominantly distributed in semi-isolated patches in an insular and disjunct distribution. Evidence of wolf occurrence in some areas was so irregular that wolves should be considered absent in most years. Where such areas were clustered over several hundreds of kilometers, they collectively constituted areas of general wolf absence that could be considered gaps in distribution. There was no evidence that this population functioned in a mosaic of closely, interlocking pack territories similar to those reported in lower latitudes. The observed distributional pattern likely reflected the exceptionally impoverished and fragmented polar desert and semi-desert habitat that compelled wolves to adopt differing spatial distribution patterns relative to wolves in temperate areas. The broader scientific significance of this study is that, even in the most remote, vast, and uninhabited regions, it is possible to produce meaningful results on distributional patterns of rare, terrestrial carnivores that can serve as foundation for the next generation of testable hypotheses.