Evidence for ERK1/2 phosphorylation controlling contact inhibition of proliferation in Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells

Increasing cell density arrests epithelial cell proliferation by a process termed contact inhibition. We investigated mechanisms of contact inhibition using a model of contact-inhibited epithelial cells. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) treatment of contact-inhibited Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells stimulated cell proliferation and increased levels of phosphorylated ERK1/2 (phospho-ERK1/2) and cyclin D1. MEK inhibitors PD-98059 and U0126 inhibited these HGF-dependent changes, indicating the dependence on phosphorylation of ERK1/2 during HGF-induced loss of contact inhibition. In relation to contact-inhibited high-density cells, low-density MDCK cells proliferated and had higher levels of phospho-ERK1/2 and cyclin D1. PD-98059 and U0126 inhibited low-density MDCK cell proliferation. Trypsinization of high-density MDCK cells immediately increased phospho-ERK1/2 and was followed by a transient increase in cyclin D1 levels. Reformation of cell junctions after trypsinization led to decreases in phospho-ERK1/2 and cyclin D1 levels. High-density MDCK cells express low levels of both cyclin D1 and phospho-ERK1/2, and treatment of these cells with fresh medium containing HGF but not fresh medium alone for 6 h increased phospho-ERK1/2 and cyclin D1 levels compared with cells without medium change. These data provide evidence that HGF abrogates MDCK cell contact inhibition by increasing ERK1/2 phosphorylation and levels of cyclin D1. These results suggest that in MDCK cells, contact inhibition of cell proliferation in the presence of serum occurs by cell density-dependent regulation of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. cell density; cyclin D1; hepatocyte growth factor; cell cycle; extracellular signal-regulated kinases     

Heregulin beta1 promotes breast cancer cell proliferation through Rac/ERK-dependent induction of cyclin D1 and p21Cip1

Accumulating evidence indicates that heregulins, EGF (epidermal growth factor)-like ligands, promote breast cancer cell proliferation and are involved in the progression of breast cancer towards an aggressive and invasive phenotype. However, there is limited information regarding the molecular mechanisms that mediate these effects. We have recently established that HRG (heregulin beta1) promotes breast cancer cell proliferation and migration via cross-talk with EGFR (EGF receptor) that involves the activation of the small GTPase Rac1. In the present paper we report that Rac1 is an essential player for mediating the induction of cyclin D1 and p21(Cip1) by HRG in breast cancer cells. Inhibition of Rac function by expressing either the Rac-GAP (GTPase-activating protein) beta2-chimaerin or the dominant-negative Rac mutant N17Rac1, or Rac1 depletion using RNAi (RNA interference), abolished the cyclin D1 and p21(Cip1) induction by HRG. Interestingly, the proliferative effect of HRG was impaired not only when the expression of Rac1 or cyclin D1 was inhibited, but also when cells were depleted of p21(Cip1) using RNAi. Inhibition of EGFR, PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase; kinases required for Rac activation by HRG) or MEK [MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase)/ERK (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase) kinase] also blocked the up-regulation of cyclin D1 and p21(Cip1) by HRG. In addition, we found that HRG activates NF-kappaB (nuclear factor kappaB) in a Rac1- and MEK-dependent fashion, and inhibition of NF-kappaB abrogates cyclin D1/p21(Cip1) induction and proliferation by HRG. Taken together, these findings establish a central role for Rac1 in the control of HRG-induced breast cancer cell-cycle progression and proliferation through up-regulating the expression of cyclin D1 and p21(Cip1).     

ERK/MAPK pathway is required for changes of cyclin D1 and B1 during phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced differentiation of K562 cells

Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-induced differentiation of human erythroleukemic K562 cells is characterized by growth arrest, morphological change, and expression of megakaryocyte-specific proteins. We examined the possible involvement of cell cycle regulators with PMA-induced growth arrest and megakaryocytic differentiation of K562 cells. The concentrations of cyclin D1 and p21Waf1/Cip1 were dramatically increased, whereas those of cyclin B1 and cdc2 were decreased, by PMA treatment. The concentrations of most cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk2, Cdk4, and Cdk6), however, were unchanged by PMA treatment. PD98059, a specific inhibitor of MEK1, partially prevented the increase in cyclin D1 caused by PMA and fully reversed the down-regulation of cyclin B1 protein seen in response to PMA treatment. Thus, it is demonstrated here that the PMA-mediated changes of cyclin D1 and B1 are the result of a persistent increase in extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK/MAPK) activity.     

15-LOX-1 inhibits p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression by enhancing MEK-ERK 1/2 signaling in colon carcinoma cells

Currently, some controversy exists regarding the precise role of 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1) in colorectal carcinogenesis and other aspects of cancer biology. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of 15-LOX-1 on p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression and growth regulation in human colon carcinoma cells. The effect of 13-S-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid (HODE), a product of 15-LOX-1, on p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression was evaluated in Caco-2 cells treated with sodium butyrate (NaBT) and/or nordihydroguaiarectic acid (NDGA), a LOX inhibitor. The effect of transfecting HCT-116 cells with 15-LOX-1 was also examined. NaBT-induced p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression was enhanced by treatment with NDGA and 13-S-HODE reversed NaBT-induced p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression in Caco-2 cells. Overexpression of 15-LOX-1 induced extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) 1/2 phosphorylation, decreased p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression, and increased HCT-116 cell growth. Treatment with NDGA decreased ERK 1/2 phosphorylation, and increased p21 (Cip/WAF 1) expression in 15-LOX-1 overexpressing HCT-116 cells. Our experimental results support the hypothesis that 15-LOX-1 may have "pro-neoplastic" effects during the development of colorectal cancer.     

Human neutrophil-derived elastase induces airway smooth muscle cell proliferation

Neutrophils and their derived elastase are abundant in chronic inflammatory responses of asthma. This study aimed to investigate the mitogenic effect of elastase on airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells and the implicated signal transduction pathway. Near confluent cultured human ASM cells were treated with human neutrophil elastase (HNE, 0.01 to 0.5 microg/ml) or vehicle for 24 hours with or without extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) inhibitor (PD98059, 30 microM), p38 kinase inhibitor (SB203580, 10 microM) or elastase inhibitor II (100 microg/ml). The ASM cell numbers were counted by a hemocytometer and DNA synthesis was assessed by flowcytometry. Western blots analysis for the expression of ERK, p38 and cyclin D1 was determined. HNE dose-dependently increased ASM cell numbers and the percentage of cells entering S-phase of cell cycle. This response was abolished by neutrophil elastase inhibitors and attenuated by PD98059, but not SB203580. HNE increased ERK phosphorylation and cyclin D1 expression. Pretreatment with PD98059 significantly inhibited elastase-induced cyclin D1 activity. The increased ASM cellular gap and cell shape change by proteolytic activity of HNE may be contributory to ERK activation and therefore cell proliferation. Our results demonstrate that HNE is mitogenic for ASM cells by increasing cyclin D1 activity through ERK signaling pathway.     

Phorbol ester potentiates the growth inhibitory effects of troglitazone via up-regulation of PPARgamma in A549 cells

The activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) has been shown to induce growth arrest and differentiation of various cancer cells. In the current study, we investigated the effect of 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) on the expression of PPARgamma and proliferation of A549 cells. TPA elicited a dose- and time-dependent increase in PPARgamma mRNA and protein levels. PPARgamma expression in response to TPA was attenuated by pretreatment with bisindolylmaleimide I, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and PD98059. TPA-induced protein kinase C (PKC) activation was linked to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), both of which were indispensable for PPARgamma expression in A549 cells. Pretreatment with bisindolylmaleimide I or NAC blocked TPA-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), suggesting that ERK-mediated signaling is also involved in the induction of PPARgamma. Furthermore, the growth inhibitory effect of troglitazone was significantly potentiated by prolonged incubation with TPA and was attenuated in the presence of GW9662, a specific inhibitor of PPARgamma. These effects were associated with an induction of cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase, which was accompanied by the induction of p21Waf1/Cip1 expression and decreased cyclin D1 expression. Taken together, these observations indicate that TPA synergizes with PPARgamma ligand to inhibit cell growth through up-regulation of PPARgamma expression.     

Inhibition of colon cancer cell proliferation by the dietary compound conjugated linoleic acid is mediated by the CDK inhibitor p21CIP1/WAF1

Our previous studies indicated that dietary conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) inhibits colon tumor cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. To identify mechanisms by which CLA regulates growth arrest, the HT-29 human colon carcinoma cell line was treated with various physiological concentrations of CLA and analyzed by flow cytometry. We detected a dose-dependent increase in the percentage of cells arrested in G1 after CLA treatment that was accompanied by induction of the cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p21CIP1/WAF. CLA addition also led to increased p21 expression in HCT116 and SW480 cells, indicating that p21 induction is a general consequence of CLA treatment in colon cancer cells. Since both HT-29 and SW480 cells have mutant p53, our data indicate that p53 is not essential for induction of p21. In addition to an increase in p21 levels, HT-29 cell growth arrest was also accompanied by moderate decreases in Cyclin A, D1, E, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) levels. Following CLA treatment, p21 associated with and inhibited CDK4 and CDK2, and this correlated with reduced phosphorylation of retinoblastoma proteins. Increased association of p21 with PCNA was also detected. Dietary CLA inhibits cell cycle progression by inducing p21, which negatively regulates the growth promoting activities of CDK/cyclins and PCNA. These studies indicate that physiological concentrations of CLA inhibit growth of colon cancer cells with either wild-type or mutant p53, and may have therapeutic benefits in vivo.     

Homocysteine induces smooth muscle cell proliferation through differential regulation of cyclins A and D1 expression

The mechanism of homocysteine‐induced cell proliferation in human vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) remains unclear. We investigated the molecular mechanisms by which homocysteine affects the expression of cyclins A and D1 in human umbilical artery SMCs (HUASMCs). Homocysteine treatment induced proliferation of HUASMCs and increased the expression levels of cyclins A and D1. Knocking down either cyclin A or cyclin D1 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) inhibited homocysteine‐induced cell proliferation. Furthermore, treatment with extracellular signal‐related kinase (ERK) inhibitor (PD98059) and dominant negative Ras (RasN17) abolished homocysteine‐induced cyclin A expression; and treatment with phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K) inhibitor (LY294002) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor (rapamycin) attenuated the homocysteine‐induced cyclin D1 expression. Homocysteine also induced transient phosphorylation of ERK, Akt, and p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6K). Neutralizing antibody and siRNA for β1 integrin blocked cell proliferation, expression of cyclins A and D1, and phosphorylation of ERK and Akt. In conclusion, homocysteine‐induced differential activation of Ras/ERK and PI3K/Akt/p70S6K signaling pathways and consequent expression of cyclins A and D1 are dependent on β1 integrin. Homocysteine may accelerate progression of atherosclerotic lesions by promoting SMC proliferation. J. Cell. Physiol. 226: 1017–1026, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Butyrate metabolism upstream and downstream acetyl-CoA synthesis and growth control of human colon carcinoma cells.

Butyrate is a short chain fatty acid (SCFA) produced by bacterial fermentation of dietary fibers in the colon lumen which severely affects the proliferation of colon cancer cells in in vitro experiments. Although butyrate is able to interfere with numerous cellular targets including cell cycle regulator expression, little is known about butyrate metabolism and its possible involvement in its effect upon colon carcinoma cell growth. In this study, we found that HT-29 Glc-/+ cells strongly accumulated and oxidized sodium butyrate without producing ketone bodies, nor modifying oxygen consumption nor mitochondrial ATP synthesis. HT-29 cells accumulated and oxidized sodium acetate at a higher level than butyrate. However, sodium butyrate, but not sodium acetate, reduced cell growth and increased the expression of the cell cycle effector cyclin D3 and the inhibitor of the G1/S cdk-cyclin complexes p21/WAF1/Cip1, demonstrating that butyrate metabolism downstream of acetyl-CoA synthesis is not required for the growth-restraining effect of this SCFA. Furthermore, HT-29 cells modestly incorporated the 14C-labelled carbon from sodium butyrate into cellular triacylglycerols and phospholipids. This incorporation was greatly increased when D-glucose was present in the incubation medium, corresponding to the capacity of hexose to circulate in the pentose phosphate pathway allowing NADPH synthesis required for lipogenesis. Interestingly, when HT-29 cells were cultured in the presence of sodium butyrate, their capacity to incorporate 14C-labelled sodium butyrate into triacylglycerols and phospholipids was increased more than twofold. In such experimental conditions, HT-29 cells when observed under an electronic microscope, were found to be characterized by an accumulation of lipid droplets in the cytosol. Our data strongly suggest that butyrate acts upon colon carcinoma cells upstream of acetyl-CoA synthesis. In contrast, the metabolism downstream of acetyl-CoA [i.e. oxidation in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and lipid synthesis] likely acts as a regulator of butyrate intracellular concentration.     

Annexin 1 regulates cell proliferation by disruption of cell morphology and inhibition of cyclin D1 expression through sustained activation of the ERK1/2 MAPK signal

Cellular proliferation is controlled by the integration and coordination of extracellular signals. This study explores the role of the protein annexin 1 (ANXA1) in the regulation of such events. We show that ANXA1 has a cell-type independent, anti-proliferative function through sustained activation of the ERK signaling cascade. Moreover, ANXA1 reduces proliferation by ERK-mediated disruption of the actin cytoskeleton and ablation of cyclin D1 protein expression and not by ERK-mediated induction of the cyclin-dependent kinase, CDK2, inhibitor p21(cip/waf). Finally, ANXA1 regulates the ERK pathway at a proximal location, by SH2 domain-independent association with the adapter protein Grb-2. In summary, overexpression of ANXA1 mediates the disruption of normal cell morphology and inhibits cyclin D1 expression, therefore reducing cell proliferation through proximal modulation of the ERK signal transduction pathway.     

Cyclin D1 overexpression induces progestin resistance in T-47D breast cancer cells despite p27(Kip1) association with cyclin E-Cdk2

Long-term growth inhibition, arrest in G(1) phase and reduced activity of both cyclin D1-Cdk4 and cyclin E-Cdk2 are elicited by progestin treatment of breast cancer cells in culture. Decreased cyclin expression, induction of p18(INK4c) and increased association of the CDK inhibitors p21(WAF1/Cip1) and p27(Kip1) with cyclin E-Cdk2 have been implicated in these responses. To determine the role of decreased cyclin expression, T-47D human breast cancer cells constitutively expressing cyclin D1 or cyclin E were treated with the progestin ORG 2058. Overexpression of cyclin E had only a modest effect on growth inhibition. Although cyclin E expression was maintained during progestin treatment, cyclin E-Cdk2 activity decreased by approximately 60%. This was accompanied by p27(Kip1) association with cyclin E-Cdk2, indicating that both cyclin E down-regulation and p27(Kip1) recruitment contribute to the decrease in activity. In contrast, overexpression of cyclin D1 induced progestin resistance and cell proliferation continued despite decreased cyclin E-Cdk2 activity. Progestin treatment of cyclin D1-overexpressing cells was associated with increased p27(Kip1) association with cyclin E-Cdk2. Thus the ability of cyclin D1 to confer progestin resistance does not depend on sequestration of p27(Kip1) away from cyclin E-Cdk2, providing evidence for a critical function of cyclin D1 other than as a high-capacity "sink" for p27(Kip1). These data indicate that regulation of cyclin D1 is a critical element of progestin inhibition in breast cancer cells and suggest that breast cancers overexpressing cyclin D1 may respond poorly to progestin therapy.     

Bradykinin B1 receptor blocks PDGF-induced mitogenesis by prolonging ERK activation and increasing p27Kip1

The mechanism by which the bradykininB₁ receptor (B1R) inhibits platelet-derived growth factor(PDGF)-stimulated proliferation was investigated in cultured ratmesenteric arterial smooth muscle cells. The B1R agonistdes-Arg⁹-bradykinin (DABK) was found to inhibitPDGF-mediated activation of the cyclin E-cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2) complex and to prevent hyperphosphorylation of retinoblastomaprotein. DABK did not inhibit upregulation of cyclin E expression butincreased expression of the Cdk2 inhibitor p27Kip1 and the associationof p27Kip1 with the cyclin E-Cdk2 complex. In addition, DABK inhibited the PDGF-stimulated expression of cyclin D that would otherwise siphonp27Kip1 away from inhibition of cyclin E-Cdk2. The signaling mechanismby which DABK regulated p27Kip1 was explored. DABK was found tostimulate the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK)and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and to prolongactivation of MEK and ERK by PDGF. Inhibition of ERK activation withthe MEK inhibitors PD-98059 and U-0126 as well as the Src family kinaseinhibitor PP2 completely blocked the effect of DABK to increase p27Kip1and partially reversed the DABK-mediated inhibition of PDGF-stimulatedproliferation. These studies demonstrate that the B1R inhibitsPDGF-stimulated mitogenesis in part by prolonged activation of ERKleading to increased expression of p27Kip1.

     

Mechanism of inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 induction by NO in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Vascular smooth muscle (VSM) cell migration is a critical step in the development of a neointima after angioplasty. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) degrade the basement membrane and extracellular matrix, facilitating VSM cell migration. Recently, we demonstrated that nitric oxide (NO) inhibits interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta)-stimulated MMP-9 induction in rat aortic VSM cells. In this study, we examined the hypothesis that NO inhibits MMP-9 induction by attenuating superoxide generation and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. Stimulation of VSM cells with IL-1 beta significantly (P < 0.05) increased superoxide production, ERK activation, and MMP-9 induction. Pretreatment of VSM cells with the NO donor DETA NONOate significantly (P < 0.05) decreased IL-1 beta-stimulated superoxide generation. In addition, pretreatment of VSM cells with a specific ERK pathway inhibitor, PD-98059, or DETA NONOate inhibited IL-1 beta-stimulated ERK activation and MMP-9 induction. Direct exposure of VSM cells to increased superoxide levels by treatment with xanthine/xanthine oxidase increased ERK activation and MMP-9 induction, whereas pretreatment of cells with PD-98059 significantly (P < 0.05) inhibited xanthine/xanthine oxidase-stimulated ERK activation and MMP-9 induction. We conclude that NO inhibits IL-1 beta-stimulated MMP-9 induction by inhibiting superoxide generation and subsequent ERK activation.     

Sepiapterin regulates cell proliferation and migration: its association with integrin α3β1 and p53 in human lung cancer cells

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH₄) has been known to be an essential cofactor for nitric oxide synthase as well as the aromatic amino acid hydroxylases, which are involved in regulation of cellular fates including proliferation, migration and differentiation. In the present study, we report that sepiapterin, a stable form of BH₄ precursor, modulates proliferation and migration in human lung cancer cells. Sepiapterin induction of cell proliferation in p53 wild-type A549 cells, but not in p53-deficient H1299 cells, is accompanied by enhanced expression of cell cycle-related proteins such as cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (Cdk4), cyclin D and cyclin E, and reduced expression of Cdk inhibitor p21^WAF1/Cip1, demonstrating that sepiapterin-induced mitogenic responses might be associated with p53 expression status in lung cancer cells. In addition, sepiapterin enhances cell migration in A549 cells, but not H1299 cells. Finally, we show that sepiapterin induces A549 cell proliferation and migration through the activation of Akt and p70^S6K signaling pathways, as evidenced by using Akt and p70^S6K inhibitor. Collectively, these findings indicate that sepiapterin might play differential roles in regulation of cellular fates, depending on the status of p53 expression in lung cancer.     

Ginsenoside Rg1 inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced human arterial smooth muscle cells (HASMCs) proliferation

In China, the ginseng root began to be used in medicine over 2000 years ago. Ginsenosides are the most important component isolated from ginseng. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of ginsenoside Rg1 on the proliferation and molecular mechanism in cultured human arterial vascular smooth muscle cell (HASMC) induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). It was shown that ginsenoside Rg1 significantly inhibited TNF-alpha-induced HASMC proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment with ginsenoside Rg1, which blocked the cell cycle in the G1-phase, induced a downregulation of cyclin D1 and an upregulation in the expression of p53, p21(WAF/CIP1), and p27(KIP1). MEK inhibitors PD98059, U0126, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor wortmannin, but not p38-inhibitor SB203580 or JNK-inhibitor SP600125 significantly aggravated ginsenoside Rg1-inhibited HASMC proliferation. Ginsenoside Rg1 markedly inactivated the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK1/2) and protein kinase B (PKB), indicating that the inhibition of ginsenoside Rg1 on HASMC proliferation was associated with ERK and PI3K/PKB pathways. The inactivation of ERK and PI3K/PKB pathways and modulation of cell-cycle proteins by ginsenoside Rg1 may be of importance in inhibition of HASMCs proliferation.