胰岛素受体信号传递

胰岛素受体是具有酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性的膜受体。胰岛素与靶细胞相应受体结合后,引起受体酪氨酸残基自身磷酸化及β亚基酪氨酸蛋白激酶活化,后者使靶细胞内底物如IRS1或Hhc的酪氨酸残基磷酸化,酪氨酸蛋白激酶在胰岛素受体信号传递中发挥重要作用。胰岛素信号所激发的信号传递途径主要有二：一为Ras-MAP激酶途径,一为PI3－激酶途径,胰岛素的作用与此有关。     

转化淋巴细胞胰岛素受体酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性及细胞内源性底物的研究

本文对增殖期的淋巴细胞胰岛素依赖性酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性及内源性废物进行了分析研究。在纯化的健康人淋巴细胞中加入适量的植物血凝素(PHA),经过72h培养即成为转化淋巴细胞(增殖期淋巴细胞)。应用~(32)P参入实验,证实转化淋巴细胞胰岛素受体具有胰岛素依赖性的酪氨酸蛋白激酶活性,与未转化的对照组相比其活性增加约9倍。Scatchard分析表明转化后淋巴细胞膜表面胰岛素受体数增加3.5倍。应用抗酪氨酸磷酸酯抗体,对胰岛素作用前后的转化与未转化淋巴细胞内,酪氨酸残基磷酸化的蛋白进行了鉴定,结果表明:除了95kD受体β亚基自身磷酸化外,45kD蛋白质也明显磷酸化,我们命名它为PP45。我们认为PP45可能是淋巴细胞中胰岛素受体酪氨酸蛋白激酶的主要内源性废物,它的磷酸化是胰岛素信息传递过程级联反应的初始步骤。     

舒林酸调节IKK通路对3T3-L1细胞IRS-1酪氨酸磷酸化的影响

目的探讨舒林酸通过调节IKK通路对分化成熟3T3-L1细胞胰岛素受体后信号转导蛋白胰岛素受体底物1（IRS-1）蛋白酪氨酸/丝氨酸（Tyr/Ser）残基磷酸化表达的影响。 方法用地塞米松、IBMX和胰岛素三联培养诱导3T3-L1前脂肪细胞分化为成熟脂肪细胞,油红O染色观察脂肪细胞形态。诱导分化成熟的脂肪细胞如下分组干预,实时荧光定量PCR检测不同浓度炎症因子IL-1 β（0,1,10,100 ng/ml）和（或）不同浓度IKK特异阻断剂舒林酸（0,0.1,1,10 mmol/L）对诱导分化成熟的脂肪细胞IKK通路激活状态的影响。Western Blot检测IL-1β和（或）舒林酸对诱导分化成熟的脂肪细胞IRS-1酪氨酸/丝氨酸残基磷酸化状态的影响。采用单因素方差分析进行统计学分析。 结果实时荧光定量PCR和Western Blot结果显示,IL-1β 10 ng/ml组诱导成熟脂肪细胞IKKβ mRNA较对照组相对表达水平增加,分别为[（2.85±0.16）﹪,（1.00±0.12）﹪,P < 0.01];而IRS-1酪氨酸的磷酸化相对表达量较对照组下降,分别为[（0.72±0.26）﹪,（1.00±0.24）﹪,P < 0.01]。进一步予舒林酸（1?mmol/?L、10?mmol/L）干预后较对照组显著逆转IL-1β诱导脂肪细胞IRS-1酪氨酸磷酸化的表达水平,分别为[（1.72±0.16）﹪,（1.90±0.08）﹪,（1.00±0.13）﹪,P < 0.01],同时下调IRS-1丝氨酸磷酸化的表达水平[（0.79±0.16）﹪,（0.66±0.08）﹪,（1.00±0.10）﹪,P < 0.05]。 结?论IL-1β通过促进诱导分化成熟脂肪细胞IKKβ的表达,激活脂肪细胞IKK炎症通路,抑制脂肪细胞IRS-1酪氨酸残基磷酸化的表达,舒林酸通过调节脂肪细胞IRS-1酪氨酸/丝氨酸残基磷酸化的表达,改善脂肪细胞胰岛素受体后信号转导。     

Pyk2介导的细胞信号通路

酪氨酸蛋白激酶在细胞信号传递过程中起重要作用,由酪氨酸蛋白磷酸酶和酪氨酸蛋白激酶协同控制的酪氨酸的磷酸化是细胞生长、分化、凋亡、黏附和迁移等生理过程的重要调节机制。酪氨酸蛋白激酶Pyk2是黏着斑激酶家族成员,能被包括整合素在内的多种细胞外信号激活,参与多条信号通路的传递,在细胞信号转导过程中发挥重要作用。     

黄鳝基因组中存在酪氨酸蛋白激酶受体基因同源序列

近年的研究表明,酪氨酸蛋白激酶受体通过其细胞膜外部的结构域与细胞外的信号分子配体结合后,激活本身位于细胞质内的激酶结构域,磷酸化的酪酸进而激活下游一系列信号分子。这些分子的激活引起细胞内基因表达的改变,最终导致细胞本身表型状态的变化。本文发现并研究了存在于鱼类中的酪氨酸蛋白激酶受体基因的同源序列matk。实验用黄鳝和胡子鲇为集市采购。PCR扩增采用人SRY基因编码区的一对引物,分别为：5′CCCGAATTCGACAATGCAATCATATGCTTCTGC3′和5′CTGTAGCGGTCCCGTTGCTGCGGTG3′。分别制备雌雄性黄鳝基因组DNA,进行PCR扩增。2％琼脂糖凝胶电泳分析表明,雌雄性样品中均可见到约250bp的扩增带。将雄性的扩增产物matk重组pUC13载体上。对其进行测序,结果表明：matk与人SRY和SRY盒基因序列无同源性,而与最近才报道的大鼠酪氨酸蛋白受体基因ptk3cDNA5′端序列具有56％的序列一致性（图1）。有报导,人与鼠的酪氨酸蛋白激酶受体基因DDR和ptk3存在96％的同源性。表明这种酪氨酸蛋白受体基因具有很强的保守性。以matk为探针,对经过EcoRI酶切过的雌雄黄鳝的胡子鲇（为对照）的基因组DNA进行Southern印迹分析。杂交结果（图2）显示：实验组的雌雄性黄鳝中,在3．3Kb和2．2Kb处均有两条一致的杂交带;而对照组中没有杂交带。说明黄鳝中存在酪氨酸蛋白激酶受体同源序列,有两个抟。类似地：果蝇和线虫的胰岛素受体基因scvenless和EGF／TGF－α等在哺乳动物中均有各自的同源基因－rasl和lin－3等。本研究结果有助于了解信号传导机制及其在水生动物到陆生动物中的进化模式。     

胰岛素受体底物PH结构域相互作用蛋白结构和功能研究进展

PHIP是一种与胰腺β细胞中胰岛素受体底物（IRS）的PH结构域相互作用的蛋白。根据小鼠PHIP（mPHIP）mRNA翻译的不同起始位点,除全长的PHIP1外,mPHIP基因还编码其他3种不同变异体。在胰岛素诱导的信号途径中,主要分布于细胞核的PHIP1和IRS-1的PH结构域相互作用,介导IRS蛋白酪氨酸的磷酸化。IRS-2和PHIP1的共表达能诱导IRS在细胞膜上的定位,促进葡萄糖转运蛋白4（GLUT4）向细胞质膜的转移。PHIP1的表达能提高β-细胞内细胞周期蛋白D2的表达,促进β细胞的生长。PHIP1的表达活化蛋白激酶B（PKB）,活化的PKB能明显抑制β细胞的凋亡。PHIP与胰岛素信号传导途径中其他信号分子的相互作用机制尚不明确。     

胰岛素受体介导的信号传递

就胰岛素与其受体结合后, 信号传递的过程及参与信号传递的细胞内信号分子进行了综述.胰岛素作为一种重要激素,参与机体的新陈代谢, 调节细胞的生长分化.其发挥生理功能的第一步是与靶细胞膜上的受体相结合, 激活胰岛素受体的酪氨酸激酶活性, 随之磷酸化细胞内的信号分子, 从而使胰岛素的刺激信号转化为细胞反应.     

脂肪细胞在肝细胞胰岛素耐受过程中的作用

目的研究脂肪细胞在不同分化阶段对肝细胞胰岛素抵抗的影响。方法体外诱导3T3-L1脂肪前体细胞分化,细胞内脂滴增加,逐步分化成脂肪细胞。采用不同分化阶段脂肪细胞（未分化0 d、中期分化4d、接近完全分化8d）与原代肝细胞共培养。Western印迹法检测共培养后肝细胞内胰岛素信号通路的反应性;葡萄糖同位素标记方法检测肝细胞糖原合成能力。结果以未共培养的肝细胞为对照组,共培养后肝细胞内胰岛素受体底物-2酪氨酸磷酸化（Tyr^612）（pIRS-2）水平及Akt磷酸化（Ser^473）（pAkt）水平均显著下调;肝糖原合成能力明显降低;与较成熟脂肪细胞共培养后,肝细胞pIRS-2及pAkt水平与其他分化阶段组共培养比较下调明显,肝糖原合成能力随着脂肪细胞的成熟而明显降低。结论脂肪细胞可能诱导肝细胞发生胰岛素抵抗,肝细胞胰岛素信号通路的阻滞程度与脂肪细胞的分化程度呈正相关。     

苄苯哌咪唑对激动剂诱导的血小板凝聚和蛋白酪氨酸磷酸化的影响

苄苯哌咪唑对激动剂诱导的血小板凝聚和蛋白酪氨酸磷酸化的影响＊杨键（中国康复研究中心康复医学研究所,北京１０００７７）血小板激动剂刺激血小板蛋白酪氨酸磷酸化,这种磷酸化过程是通过血小板表面受体使其酪氨酸蛋白激酶活化而引起的,血小板的凝聚功能与表面受体有...     

信号传导途径新热点：直接效应物模式

信号传导途径新热点：直接效应物模式跨膜信号传导途径的通常模式,是生长因子与受体作用后,使其受体的酪氨酸蛋白激酶活化。活化后的酪氨酸蛋白激酶使磷脂酶ＣＹ活化;或是酪氨酸蛋白激酶使某些蛋白质因子磷酸化,转而引起原癌基因产物ｃ－Ｒａｓ蛋白活化。蛋白激酶Ｃ与...     

Insulin activates the Raf-1 protein kinase

Several growth factors and mitogens have been shown to activate the proto-oncogene product Raf-1 protein kinase in murine fibroblasts, apparently through a direct agonist-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of the Raf-1 protein. We investigated the possibility that insulin could also activate the Raf-1 kinase, since its receptor also contains an intrinsic insulin-activated protein tyrosine kinase activity. In several cell lines expressing relatively large numbers of insulin receptors, insulin rapidly stimulated the phosphorylation of immunoreactive Raf-1 protein. In H35 cells, a line of well differentiated rat hepatoma cells, the effect of insulin was maximal by 6 min and at 7 nM insulin and occurred normally in cells virtually completely depleted of protein kinase C activity. The insulin-stimulated increase in Raf-1 protein phosphorylation occurred concurrently with a 3-fold increase in Raf-1 protein kinase activity. However, phosphoamino acid analysis showed that only phosphoserine and a trace of phosphothreonine were present in the Raf-1 protein after insulin stimulation of the cells. This was true even when investigated at shorter times (4 min) after insulin stimulation and despite the use of phosphotyrosine phosphatase inhibitors. We conclude that insulin can rapidly activate the Raf-1 kinase in some insulin-sensitive cell types but that this activation probably occurs through a mechanism distinct from direct phosphorylation of the Raf-1 protein by the insulin receptor protein tyrosine kinase.     

Monoclonal antibodies mimic insulin activation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase without activation of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. Studies in cells transfected with normal and mutant human insulin receptors

The effects of species-specific monoclonal antibodies to the human insulin receptor on ribosomal protein S6 phosphorylation were studied in rodent cell lines transfected with human insulin receptors. First, Swiss mouse 3T3 fibroblasts expressing normal human insulin receptors (3T3/HIR cells) were studied. Three monoclonal antibodies, MA-5, MA-20, and MA-51, activated S6 kinase in these cells but had no effects in untransfected 3T3 cells. Both insulin and MA-5, the most potent antibody, activated S6 kinase in a similar time- and dose-dependent manner. To measure S6 phosphorylation in vivo, 3T3/HIR cells were preincubated with [32P]Pi and treated with insulin and MA-5. Both agents increased S6 phosphorylation, and their tryptic phosphopeptide maps were similar. MA-5 and the other monoclonal antibodies, unlike insulin, failed to stimulate insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity either in vitro or in vivo. Moreover, unlike insulin, they failed to increase the tyrosine phosphorylation of the endogenous cytoplasmic protein, pp 185. Next, HTC rat hepatoma cells, expressing a human insulin receptor mutant that had three key tyrosine autophosphorylation sites in the beta-subunit changed to phenylalanines (HTC-IR-F3 cells), were studied. In this cell line but not in untransfected HTC cells, monoclonal antibodies activated S6 kinase without stimulating either insulin receptor autophosphorylation or the tyrosine phosphorylation of pp 185. These data indicate, therefore, that monoclonal antibodies can activate S6 kinase and then increase S6 phosphorylation. Moreover, they suggest that activation of receptor tyrosine kinase and subsequent tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins may not be crucial for activation of S6 kinase by the insulin receptor.     

Regulation of protein phosphotyrosine content by changes in tyrosine kinase and protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase activities during induced granulocytic and monocytic differentiation of HL-60 leukemia cells

About 1.5% of phosphorylated amino acid residues of HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells are phosphotyrosine. Induction of granulocytic differentiation by exposure to dimethylsulfoxide decreased tyrosine phosphorylation to 0.2%. A maximum 3-fold increase in tyrosine kinase activity and a 7-fold increase in protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity accompanied this change. Monocytic differentiation induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, caused a decrease in phosphotyrosine levels to 0.1%; tyrosine kinase activity maximally increased 2-fold, and protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity increased 11-fold in these differentiated cells. Thus, although total tyrosine kinase activity markedly increased during differentiation, this was counteracted by an even greater elevation in protein phosphotyrosine phosphatase activity. The findings support the concept that tyrosine phosphorylation is important in the regulation of growth and differentiation of leukemia cells.     

Human insulin receptors mutated at the ATP-binding site lack protein tyrosine kinase activity and fail to mediate postreceptor effects of insulin

Transfected Chinese hamster ovary cell lines were developed that expressed equivalent numbers of either normal human receptor or receptor that had alanine substituted for Lys-1018 in the ATP-binding domain of the beta subunit. The mutated receptor was processed into subunits and bound insulin but lacked protein tyrosine kinase activity. Five effects of insulin were assayed: deoxyglucose uptake, S6 kinase activity, endogenous protein-tyrosine phosphorylation, glycogen synthesis, and thymidine uptake. In each case, cells bearing normal human receptors were 10-100-fold more sensitive to insulin than the parental cells. Cells with the mutant receptor behaved like the parental cells with respect to S6 kinase activation, endogenous substrate phosphorylation, glycogen synthesis, and thymidine uptake, but their deoxyglucose uptake was significantly depressed and relatively insensitive to insulin. The analyses led to the following conclusions: substitution of alanine for lysine at amino acid 1018 inactivates the kinase activity of the receptor; a kinase-negative receptor can be properly processed and bind insulin; insulin-dependent deoxyglucose uptake, S6 kinase activation, endogenous substrate phosphorylation, glycogen synthesis, and thymidine incorporation into DNA are mediated by the normal but not by the kinase-deficient human receptor.     

Ghrelin modulates the downstream molecules of insulin signaling in hepatoma cells.

Ghrelin was identified in the stomach as an endogenous ligand specific for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R). GHS-R is found in various tissues, but its function is unknown. Here we show that GHS-R is found in hepatoma cells. Exposure of these cells to ghrelin caused up-regulation of several insulin-induced activities including tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), association of the adapter molecule growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 with IRS-1, mitogen-activated protein kinase activity, and cell proliferation. Unlike insulin, ghrelin inhibited Akt kinase activity as well as up-regulated gluconeogenesis. These findings raise the possibility that ghrelin modulates insulin activities in humans.     

Functional trans-inactivation of insulin receptor kinase by growth-inhibitory angiotensin II AT2 receptor

The present study demonstrates negative intracellular cross-talk between angiotensin II type 2 (AT2) and insulin receptors. AT2 receptor stimulation leads to inhibition of insulin-induced extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK2) activity and cell proliferation in transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-hAT2) cells. We show that AT2 receptor interferes at the initial step of insulin signaling cascade, by impairing tyrosine phosphorylation of the insulin receptor (IR) beta-chain. AT2-mediated inhibition of IR phosphorylation is insensitive to pertussis toxin and is also detected in neuroblastoma N1E-115 and pancreatic acinar AR42J cells that express endogenous receptors. We present evidence that AT2 receptor inhibits the autophosphorylating tyrosine kinase activity of IR, with no significant effect on insulin binding properties. AT2-mediated inactivation of IR does not mainly involve tyrosine dephosphorylation by vanadate-sensitive tyrosine phosphatases nor serine/threonine phosphorylation by protein kinase C. As a consequence of IR inactivation, AT2 receptor inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1) and signal-regulatory protein (SIRPalpha1) and prevents subsequent association of both IRS-1 and SIRPalpha1 with Src homology 2 (SH2)-containing tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2. Our results thus demonstrate functional trans-inactivation of IR kinase by G protein-coupled AT2 receptor, illustrating a novel mode of negative communication between two families of membrane receptors.     

The relationship of rat liver overt carnitine palmitoyltransferase to the mitochondrial malonyl-CoA binding entity and to the latent palmitoyltransferase.

Concanavalin A (ConA) stimulated the phosphorylation of the beta-subunit of the insulin receptor and an Mr-185,000 protein on serine and tyrosine residues in intact H-35 rat hepatoma cells. This Mr-185,000 protein whose phosphorylation was stimulated by ConA was identical to pp185, a protein reported previously to be a putative endogenous substrate for the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase in rat hepatoma cells. In Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells transfected with cDNA of the human insulin receptor, tyrosine-phosphorylation of pp185 was strongly enhanced by ConA compared with the controls, suggesting that the induction of tyrosine-phosphorylation of pp185 was due to stimulation of the insulin receptor kinase by ConA. Moreover, monovalent ConA only slightly induced the tyrosine-phosphorylation of pp185, which was enhanced by the addition of anti-ConA IgG, suggesting that ConA stimulated the insulin receptor kinase mainly by the receptor cross-linking or aggregation in intact cells. These data suggest that the insulin-mimetic action of ConA is related to the autophosphorylation and activation of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase, as well as the subsequent phosphorylation of pp185 in intact cells.     

Phosphatidylinositol kinase or an associated protein is a substrate for the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase.

The tyrosine kinase activity intrinsic to the insulin receptor is thought to be important in eliciting the intracellular responses to insulin; however, it has been difficult to determine the biochemical functions of the proteins which are substrates for this receptor. Treatment of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells overexpressing the human insulin receptor (CHO.T) with insulin results in a 38 +/- 11 (mean +/- S.E., n = 9)-fold increase in a phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) kinase activity in anti-phosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates of whole cell lysates. One minute of treatment of cells with insulin causes a dramatic increase in the PtdIns kinase activity in the anti-phosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates; the activity peaks within 5 min and remains elevated for at least 60 min after addition of insulin to the cells. This response is only slightly delayed compared with the time course we observe for activation of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. The insulin dose-response curves are also very similar for the activation of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity and for the appearance of PtdIns kinase in the anti-phosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates. Stimulation of the endogenous insulin receptor of CHO cells also results in the association of PtdIns kinase activity with phosphotyrosine-containing proteins. However, CHO cells are less sensitive to insulin than CHO.T cells, and the maximal PtdIns kinase activity in antiphosphotyrosine immunoprecipitates from CHO cells is one-sixth that of CHO.T cells. In contrast, immunoprecipitates from CHO.T cells made with anti-insulin receptor antibodies do not contain significant levels of PtdIns kinase activity. This demonstrates that the PtdIns kinase is either a substrate for the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase or is tightly associated with another tyrosine phosphoprotein, which is not the insulin receptor.     

Substitution of isoleucine for methionine at position 1153 in the beta-subunit of the human insulin receptor. A mutation that impairs receptor tyrosine kinase activity, receptor endocytosis, and insulin action.

The intracellular domain of the insulin receptor possesses activity as a tyrosine-specific protein kinase. The receptor tyrosine kinase is stimulated by insulin binding to the extracellular domain of the receptor. Previously, we have identified a patient with a genetic form of insulin resistance who is heterozygous for a mutation substituting Ile for Met1153 in the tyrosine kinase domain of the receptor near the cluster of the three major autophosphorylation sites (Tyr1158, Tyr1162, and Tyr1163). In this investigation, the Ile1153 mutant receptor was expressed by transfection of mutant cDNA into NIH-3T3 cells. The mutation impairs receptor tyrosine kinase activity and also inhibits the ability of insulin to stimulate 2-deoxyglucose uptake and thymidine incorporation. These data support the hypothesis that the receptor tyrosine activity plays a necessary role in the ability of the receptor to mediate insulin action in vivo. Furthermore, expression of the Ile1153 mutant receptor exerted a dominant negative effect to inhibit the ability of endogenous murine receptors for insulin and insulin-like growth factor I to mediate their actions upon the cell. This observation is consistent with previous suggestions that mutant receptors dimerize with wild type receptors, thereby creating hybrid molecules which lack biological activity. The dominant negative effect of the mutant receptor may explain the dominant mode of inheritance of insulin resistance caused by the Ile1153 mutation. Finally, the mutation inhibits the ability of insulin to stimulate receptor endocytosis. This may explain the normal number of insulin receptors on the surface of the patient's cells in vivo. Despite the presence of markedly elevated levels of insulin in the patient's plasma, the receptors were resistant to down-regulation.