Alarm in a wasp-wasp nesting association: Do members signal cross-specifically?

Summary We studied interspecific alarm communication between two species of social wasps in a nesting association in northwestern Costa Rica by testing the alarm responses ofPolybia occidentalis andMischocyttarus immarginatus to venom of both species. This is the first investigation of alarm pheromone in the genusMischocyttarus. M. immarginatus did not respond with alarm behavior to the venom of either species.P. occidentalis, which responds to its own venom with alarm behavior (Jeanne, 1981), also responded with alarm behavior to the venom ofM. immarginatus, but with much less intensity. Since heterospecific venoms did not release species-typical levels of alarm behavior, we conclude that interspecific alarm signalling plays no role in the nesting association.     

Diel changes of temperature in the nests of two Polybia species, P. paulista and P. occidentalis (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) in the subtropical climate

Temperatures in two mature Polybia nests were measured to study the thermal conditions of nests. Temperatures in a Polybia paulista nest were measured when it had adult wasps (trial 1) and after the adult wasps were removed (trial 2), and temperatures in a P. occidentalis nest were measured when inhabited by adult wasps (trial 3). In each trial, C–C thermocouples were set at four points in the nest and at two points outside to discover the ambient and substratum temperatures. In trial 1, nest temperatures basically followed the ambient temperature, but during the day the nest temperatures were lower than the ambient temperature and this relationship was reversed during the night. The temperature fluctuation of the inner substratum points was smaller than that of the outer points. The trend of trial 2 was closely similar to that of trial 1, showing a virtual lack of thermal effects from the presence of adult wasps. In trial 3, the changing pattern in the P. occidentalis nest showed a trend similar to that in the P. paulista nest, but the inside temperatures rose quickly when the nest received direct sunlight in the morning. From these results, thermal characteristics in the Polybia nests are discussed in relation to the nest architecture and their geographical distribution.     

Borrelia, Coxiella, and Rickettsia in Carios capensis (Acari: Argasidae) from a brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) rookery in South Carolina, USA

Argasid ticks are vectors of viral and bacterial agents of humans and animals. Carios capensis, a tick of seabirds, infests the nests of brown pelicans, Pelecanus occidentalis, and other ground nesting birds along the coast of South Carolina. This tick is associated with pelican nest abandonment and could pose a threat to humans visiting pelican rookeries if visitors are exposed to ticks harboring infectious agents. We collected ticks from a pelican rookery on Deveaux Bank, South Carolina and screened 64 individual ticks, six pools of larvae, and an egg mass for DNA from Bartonella, Borrelia, Coxiella, and Rickettsia by polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing. Ticks harbored DNA from “Borrelia lonestari”, a novel Coxiella sp., and three species of Rickettsia, including Rickettsia felis and two undescribed Rickettsia spp. DNA from the Coxiella and two undescribed Rickettsia were detected in unfed larvae that emerged in the laboratory, which implies these agents are transmitted vertically by female ticks. We partially characterize the novel Coxiella by molecular means.     

Ground nesting in the paper wasp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polistes aurifer</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera,Vespidae)

Summary Polistes paper wasp species vary in their nest site selection, with some nesting in relatively exposed areas and others in protected cavities. Locating the nest sites of cavity dwelling species in natural habitat can prove difficult, and most behavioral studies on these species are therefore conducted using human-built structures. Since Hungerford and Williams (1912) and Rau (1929) noted the location of several P. fuscatus (Fabricius) nests in rodent burrows, there have been no published accounts of ground nesting Polistes species. I report the occurrence of a large, dense cluster of P. aurifer (Saussure) nests located within cracks in the dried soil of the Santa Monica Mountains of southern California, USA.Received 8 April 2003; revised 10 October 2003; accepted 31 October 2003.     

Ecology and Management of Nesting Blue-and-Yellow Macaws (Ara ararauna) in Mauritia Palm Swamps

This paper reports on the nesting ecology of blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara ararauna) and the structure, conservation, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm swamps where they nest: clutch size averaged 2.6 and the number of chicks fledged per nesting attempt was 0.5. Macaws nested in tall dead palms in healthy palm swamps and in palms of all heights in open dieing palm stands. All nesting palms rose well above the surrounding vegetation presumably to discourage terrestrial predators. PVC nest boxes failed to attract nesting blue-and-yellow macaws. A small section of palm swamp was managed to encourage macaw nesting by cutting the tops off of M. flexuosa palms and clearing the understory vegetation. The palms remained standing from 4 to 7 years and were occupied by nesting macaws at a rate of 24%. The data presented here suggest that cutting five palms a year in perpetuity would produce a stand of approximately 20 standing dead palms used by 6 or more pairs of macaws annually. However, macaw occupancy rates would depend on the density of macaws and density of naturally occurring nest sites. This management scheme could be conducted on a 100-year rotation in an area of 1–4 ha or more depending on the palm density. Such a colony could be used to increase reproductive success of blue-and-yellow macaw populations, create a valuable ecotourism resource, and concentrate macaw nesting in protected areas.     

Change in movement and subdivision of Myrmica punctiventris (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) colonies in north temperate forests is related to a long-term shift in social organization

We assessed temporal and spatial patterns of nest site use in the cavity dwelling ant, Myrmica punctiventris in a well-studied temperate forest site in central New York State. We evaluated changes in nest site use by repeatedly censusing the ants inhabiting artificial nests (hollow dowels) for three consecutive growing seasons. We confirm a shift towards more polydomy in this population of M. punctiventris, first reported by DeHeer et al. (2001), but extend these findings by demonstrating that this shift has occurred gradually over several years. We are unable to determine if this polydomy is seasonal or year round. We explore various explanations for the occurrence of polydomy and suggest that long-term changes in sex allocation are indirectly driving the shift in nesting strategies. Received 15 July 2004; revised 11 April and 19 October 2005; accepted 25 October.     

Nest site selection by a neotropical swarm-founding wasp: seasonal alternation of nest orientation

Nest orientation in social insects has been intensively studied in warmer and cooler climates, particularly in the northern hemisphere. Previous studies have consistently shown that species subjected to these climatic conditions prefer to select mostly southern locations where the nests can gain direct sunlight. However, very little is known on nest orientation in tropical and subtropical social insects. We studied nest orientations initiated by swarms throughout a year in a Brazilian swarm-founding wasp, Polybia paulista von Ihering (Hymenoptera: Polistinae). Swarms selected various orientations as nest sites, but there was a particular trend in that swarms in the winter period (May–August) preferred to build northward-facing nests. This preference is opposite from that of social wasps observed in the northern hemisphere. Colonies of this species can potentially last for many years with continuous nesting, but nesting activities of colonies during the winter are severely limited due to cool temperature and a shortened day length. Northward-facing nests are warmer through the gain of direct solar heat during the winter period; consequently, choosing northward-facing sites may be advantageous for swarms in terms of a shortened brood development and shortened time needed to increase metabolic rates during warm-up for flight.     

Individual scent marking of the nest entrance as a mechanism for nest recognition inXylocopa pubescens (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae)

The mechanism by which female Xylocopa pubescenslocate their nest in a nesting aggregation was investigated. The bees were induced to nest in canes to which uniform nest entrances were attached. The results of nest displacement experiments revealed that the bees use visual cues for proximate orientation,but at very close range they also use olfactory cues. This conclusion was corroborated by the results of experiments in which the nest entrances were either removed or exchanged for alien nest entrances. Moreover, habituation experiments strongly indicated that the bees impart their individual marking at the nest entrance and that they can learn and memorize the individual odors of the neighboring bees.     

Biology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lasioglossum</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">L.</Emphasis>) <Emphasis Type="Italic">majus</Emphasis> (Hymenoptera: Halictidae), a largely solitary sweat bee with behavioural adaptations to communality

Within the bee family Halictidae there have been three origins of sociality. Although detection of origins and reversal from sociality requires phylogenetic studies, at a behavioural level a predisposition to sociality can be detected by analysis of intra-specific interactions. We studied aspects of nesting biology and behavioural interactions in Lasioglossum (Lasioglossum) majus, a poorly known halictine inhabiting temperate regions of Europe, which is suspected to be solitary. Nests were found to be largely used by one female, but some were shared by more than one individual. These few nests, whose entrances were very close to each other, were found to be connected underground. A few individuals were observed to enter in a nest where a female was waiting, behaving as a guard and allowing the incoming bee to enter the nest. By use of circle-tube experiments, the behavioural repertoire exhibited by females during encounters was assessed. Levels of withdrawal and cooperative events were comparable with those observed in other solitary nesting species, but aggressive events were very rare, as in several observed communal species. We conclude that L. (L.) majus females, despite general solitary nesting, possess behavioural components enabling them to adopt, probably in high nest-density areas, nest-sharing strategies. A similar kind of local social polymorphism has been observed in two other species of the subgenus Lasioglossum, but these are the first data available on a European species and the first record of subterranean connections among nests of halictid bees.     

Soil temperature, digging behaviour, and the adaptive value of nest depth in South American species of Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants

In leaf-cutting ants, workers are expected to excavate the nest at a soil depth that provides suitable temperatures, since the symbiotic fungus cultivated inside nest chambers is highly dependent on temperature for proper growth. We hypothesize that the different nesting habits observed in Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants in the South American continent, i.e. superficial and subterranean nests, depend on the occurrence, across the soil profile, of the temperature range preferred by workers for digging. To test this hypothesis, we first explored whether the nesting habits in the genus Acromyrmex are correlated with the prevailing soil temperature regimes at the reported nest locations. Second, we experimentally investigated whether Acromyrmex workers engaged in digging use soil temperature as a cue to decide where to excavate the nest. A bibliographic survey of nesting habits of 21 South American Acromyrmex species indicated that nesting habits are correlated with the soil temperature regimes: the warmer the soil at the nesting site, the higher the number of species inhabiting subterranean nests, as compared to superficial nests. For those species showing nesting plasticity, subterranean nests occurred in hot soils, and superficial nests in cold ones. Experimental results indicated that Acromyrmex lundi workers use soil temperature as an orientation cue to decide where to start digging, and respond to rising and falling soil temperatures by moving to alternative digging places, or by stopping digging, respectively. The soil temperature range preferred for digging, between 20°C and maximally 30.6°C, matched the range at which colony growth would be maximized. It is suggested that temperature-sensitive digging guides digging workers towards their preferred range of soil temperature. Workers’ thermopreferences lead to a concentration of digging activity at the soil layers where the preferred range occurs, and therefore, to the construction of superficial nests in cold soils, and subterranean ones in hot soils. The adaptive value of the temperature-related nesting habits, and the temperature-sensitive digging, is further discussed.     

Nest survival is influenced by parental behaviour and heterospecifics in a mixed‐species colony

Studies of avian nest success often focus on examining influences of variation in environmental and seasonal factors. However, in‐depth evaluations can also incorporate variation in individual incubation behaviour to further advance our understanding of avian reproductive ecology. We examined these relationships in colonially nesting Black‐crowned Night‐Herons Nycticorax nycticorax using intensive video‐monitoring methods to quantify incubation behaviours. We modelled nest survival as a function of both extrinsic factors and incubation behaviours over a 3‐year period (2010–12) on Alcatraz Island, USA. Model‐averaged parameter estimates indicated that nest survival increased as a function of greater incubation constancy (% of time spent incubating eggs within a 24‐h period), and average daily precipitation throughout the nesting stage. Common Ravens Corvus corax are the only known nest predator of Night‐Herons on Alcatraz Island, as on many other coastal Pacific islands. We also investigated the effects of heterospecific nesting of California Gulls Larus californicus and Western Gulls Larus occidentalis in a mixed‐species colony with Night‐Herons, based on nesting proximity data collected over a 2‐year period (2011–12). This second analysis indicated that, in addition to incubation behaviours, nesting heterospecifics are an important factor for explaining variation in Night‐Heron nest survival. However, contrary to our original expectation, we found that Night‐Herons experienced increased nest survival with increasing distance from gull colony boundaries. These results may apply to other areas with multiple colonial nesting species and similar predator communities and climatic patterns.     

Experimental tests of nest site competition in two Peromyscus species

The importance of interspecific competition for nest sites between the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis) and the cloudland deermouse (P. maniculatus nubiterrae) were investigated in the montane forests of southwestern Virginia over 3 years. Trials were conducted for both species using large, outdoor enclosures in order to examine: (i) nest site preference in isolation and (ii) nest site selection made in the presence of potential competitors. Both species demonstrated a strong preference for arboreal nest sites when tested without competitors present. After the introduction of a heterospecific intruder, P. leucopus often shifted to a non-arboreal nest while P. maniculatus continued to use arboreal nests. Intruding P. maniculatus displaced resident P. leucopus from P. leucopus' preferred nest sites in all 3 years while intruding P. leucopus never displaced P. maniculatus. Neither species was routinely displaced in conspecific trials. Resident P. maniculatus also excluded P. leucopus from access to preferred nesting sites in all three years while P. leucopus were only able to exclude P. maniculatus in the 3rd year. Both species exhibite relatively low frequencies of exclusion in conspecific trials with the exception of P. maniculatus which excluded high proportions of conspecific intruders in the second year. We suggest that the asymmetrical advantage enjoyed by P. maniculatus in nest site selection may result from both site-specific effects and a species-specific influence on P. leucopus. Nonetheless, the intensity of such influence varied between years, perhaps as a function of population density, and did not appear to drastically influence continued coexistence of these congeners.     

The capacity of a Myrmica ant nest to support a predacious species of Maculinea butterfly

Summary Caterpillars of Maculinea arion are obligate predators of the brood of Myrmica sabuleti ants. In the aboratory, caterpillars eat the largest available ant larvae, although eggs, small larvae and prepupae are also palatable. This is an efficient way to predate. It ensures that newly-adopted caterpillars consume the final part of the first cohort of ant brood in a nest, before this pupates in early autumn and becomes unavailable as prey. At the same time, the fixed number of larvae in the second cohort is left to grow larger before being killed in late autumn and spring. Caterpillars also improve their feeding efficiency by hibernating for longer than ants in spring, losing just 6% of their weight while the biomass of ant larvae increases by 27%. Final instar caterpillars acquire more than 99% of their ultimate biomass in Myrmica nests, growing from 1.3 mg to an estimated 173 mg. A close correlation was found between the weights of caterpillars throughout autumn and the number of large ant larvae they had eaten. This was used to calculate the number of larvae eaten in spring, allowing both for the loss of caterpillar weight during winter and the increase in the size of their prey in spring. It is estimated that 230 of the largest available larvae, and a minimum nest size of 354 M. sabuleti workers, is needed to support one butterfly. Few wild M. sabuleti nests are this large: on one site, it was estimated that 85% of nests were too small to produce a butterfly, and only 5% could support two or more. This prediction was confirmed by the mortalities of 376 caterpillars in 151 wild M. sabuleti nests there. Mortalities were particularly high in nests that adopted more than two caterpillars, apparently due to scramble competition and starvation in autumn. Survival was higher than predicted in wild nests that adopted one caterpillar. These caterpillars seldom exhaust their food before spring, when there is intense competition among Myrmica for nest sites. Ants often desert their nests in the absence of brood, leaving the caterpillar behind. Vacant nests are frequently repopulated by a neighbouring colony, carrying in a fresh supply of brood. Maculinea arion caterpillars have an exceptional ability to withstand starvation, and sometimes survive to parasitize more than one Myrmica colony. Despite these adaptations, predation is an inefficient way to exploit the resources of a Myrmica nest. By contrast, Maculinea rebeli feeds mainly at a lower trophic level, on the regurgitations of worker ants. Published data show that Myrmica nests can support 6 times more caterpillars of Maculinea rebeli than of M. arion in the laboratory. This is confirmed by field data.     

Microbial diversity in the predatory mite Metaseiulus occidentalis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) and its prey, Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Microorganisms associated with the predatory mite Metaseiulus (=Typhlodromus or Galendromus) occidentalis (Nesbitt) and its prey, the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Koch), were assessed using a high-fidelity polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol and primers designed to identify Eubacteria, Archaeabacteria, iridoviruses, Helicosporidia, Cytophaga-like microorganisms, Wolbachia and its bacteriophage WO, fungi and yeast-like organisms. Sequences from four bacterial species related to Wolbachia (α-Proteobacteria), Cardinium, Bacteroidetes, and Enterobacter (γ-Proteobacteria) were obtained from M. occidentalis, and three sequences related to Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Caulobacter (α-Proteobacteria) were obtained from T. urticae. No nucleotide differences were detected between the 16S rRNA, wspA or wspB Wolbachia sequences obtained from M. occidentalis and T. urticae, which suggest that horizontal transfer of Wolbachia could have occurred. Southern blot analyses of genomic DNA from both M. occidentalis and T. urticae using wspA probes were negative, indicating that this Wolbachia sequence is not integrated into the nuclear genome of either species. Two of the T. urticae colonies tested contained the WO bacteriophage, but none of the six M. occidentalis populations were infected. New M. occidentalis-specific forward and reverse 16S rRNA primers based on the Wolbachia, Cardinium, Bacteroidetes, and Enterobacter sequences obtained were designed and used to amplify PCR products from each of two laboratory and four field-collected samples of M. occidentalis females and eggs, indicating that these infections are widespread. Likewise, species-specific primers for T. urticae were designed for the Wolbachia, Rickettsia, and Caulobacter sequences obtained and used to evaluate T. urticae from strawberries, wine grapes, hops, almonds, and cherries from California, Washington, and Florida; all were positive for Wolbachia and Caulobacter but two of the six were negative for Rickettsia. None of the M. occidentalis colonies tested were positive for the microsporidium Oligosporidium occidentalis, which previously had been associated with a pathogenic condition in some of our laboratory colonies. The Gainesville colonies of M. occidentalis and T. urticae were negative for iridovirus, Archaeabacteria, fungi, Helicosporidia, and yeast-like organisms. So far, Wolbachia is the only symbiont that is shared by this predator and its prey.     

Lasioglossum (Dialictus) tenax (Sandhouse) (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) as a solitary sweat bee

Summary Nine nests ofLasioglossum (Dialictus) tenax were excavated near Calgary, Alberta, Canada over a time period encompassing the entire brood production period in 1988. Each nest contained a maximum of one active adult female, nest productivity peaked in mid July, protandry was noted and no significant size difference between foundresses and the earlier emerging females was detected. These data suggest that this species is solitary. These results are compared with data for the sympatrically nesting eusocial speciesL. (D.) laevissimum.     

Sea turtle species vary in their susceptibility to tropical cyclones

Severe climatic events affect all species, but there is little quantitative knowledge of how sympatric species react to such situations. We compared the reproductive seasonality of sea turtles that nest sympatrically with their vulnerability to tropical cyclones (in this study, “tropical cyclone” refers to tropical storms and hurricanes), which are increasing in severity due to changes in global climate. Storm surges significantly decreased reproductive output by lowering the number of nests that hatched and the number of hatchlings that emerged from nests, but the severity of this effect varied by species. Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) began nesting earliest and most offspring hatched before the tropical cyclone season arrived, resulting in little negative effect. Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) nested intermediately, and only nests laid late in the season were inundated with seawater during storm surges. Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nested last, and their entire nesting season occurred during the tropical cyclone season; this resulted in a majority (79%) of green turtle nests incubating in September, when tropical cyclones are most likely to occur. Since this timing overlaps considerably with the tropical cyclone season, the developing eggs and nests are extremely vulnerable to storm surges. Increases in the severity of tropical cyclones may cause green turtle nesting success to worsen in the future. However, published literature suggests that loggerhead turtles are nesting earlier in the season and shortening their nesting seasons in response to increasing sea surface temperatures caused by global climate change. This may cause loggerhead reproductive success to improve in the future because more nests will hatch before the onset of tropical cyclones. Our data clearly indicate that sympatric species using the same resources are affected differently by tropical cyclones due to slight variations in the seasonal timing of nesting, a key life history process.     

西花蓟马高毒力虫生真菌筛选及其生防应用潜力的研究进展

西花蓟马是一种外来入侵的世界性害虫,对农林业危害巨大。查阅国内外相关文献,综述了当前防治西花蓟马的虫生真菌的种类、高毒力菌株的筛选及防治现状。现已知西花蓟马的寄生病原真菌有5种,包括蜡蚧轮枝菌(半知菌:丝孢目)、球孢白僵菌(半知菌:丝孢目)、金龟子绿僵菌(半知菌:丝孢目)、玫烟色棒束孢(半知菌:束梗孢目)和小孢新接霉。其中,球孢白僵菌、金龟子绿僵菌在西花蓟马的生物防治中应用最广,具有良好的开发应用潜力,部分防效好的虫生真菌已申请专利及实现工厂化生产。     

海拔梯度变化对黄缘蜾蠃筑巢结构及相关生物学特性的影响

黄缘蜾蠃(Anterhynchium flavomarginatum)是一种以鳞翅目幼虫为食的独栖性捕食昆虫,在生态系统中提供了重要的生物防治功能。2018—2019年,在广东车八岭国家级自然保护区通过人工巢穴收集了不同海拔梯度下(332—1007 m)该蜂的筑巢巢管,系统研究了黄缘蜾蠃的筑巢特征(巢管内径、巢室长度、巢室数量)以及该蜂的子代雌雄数和体型大小随海拔梯度的变化趋势。结果表明：海拔主要影响的是黄缘蜾蠃对巢管内径大小的选择,以及对前庭长度的分配,同时,黄缘蜾蠃对巢管内径的选择可以影响到后代性别比,这种策略主要体现在亲本对雌性子代的投资,而不是雄性子代。研究结果表明黄缘蜾蠃在不同海拔梯度下可根据外界环境压力调整其营巢和生殖策略,以提高种群对环境的适应性。     

Nesting behavior and nest site selection in monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in the Pantanal of Brazil

We examined nesting behavior in monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in their native habitat in the Brazilian Pantanal. Unique among parrots, monk parakeets build communal nest structures that contain many cavities, each belonging to an individual pair. We studied 41 parakeet colonies that had 104 nest structures. We hypothesized that nest structures would be located in trees providing the greatest support and protection from predators and inclement weather, and that nest sites and nest cavities would differ from random locations with respect to tree characteristics, location of houses, and presence of jabiru stork (Jabiru mycteria) nests, as suggested anecdotally by other authors. Fewer than half of the colonies were close (<350 m) to houses. There was a strong association with jabiru storks; 21 of 23 stork nests had monk parakeet nest cavities attached, accounting for 51% of parakeet colonies. Of the 21 jabiru-associated colonies, 6 had additional parakeet structures and 15 had only the jabiru-attached parakeet structure. Monk parakeet colonies associated with jabiru nests had significantly more nesting cavities than did monospecific monk parakeet colonies, due mainly to those attached directly to the jabiru nest. In jabiru-associated colonies, parakeet nest structures were located higher and in taller trees than in monospecific colonies. There was no difference in trunk diameters of parakeet nesting trees with or without jabirus. Although we tabulated 24 tree species as nest trees, nearest-neighbor trees, or matched-point trees, only 6 species were used for nesting. When compared to matched points, monk parakeet structures were preferentially located in piuva (Tabebuia spp.) and mandovi trees (Sterculia apetela). Parakeet structures were in taller trees with thicker trunk diameters than matched points. Most nest cavities (71%) faced in a northerly direction (northwest to northeast), away from cold southerly winds. Choice of a nest site and orientation appears to reflect structural, weather, and predator constraints. Thick, tall trees with stout branches provided stable sites for their large nest structures, which are known to collapse because of their own weight and strong winds. Nesting with jabirus confers structural advantages (they could attach many nests to the bottom of the jabiru nest, potentially gaining benefits from social facilitation), early warning, and predator defense.     

The effect of environmental factors on the nesting and courtship behaviour ofTilapia zillii in Lake Kinneret (Israel)

Tilapia zillii is a polyphilic, guarding nest spawner which is widespread in west and north Africa and in the Middle East. A study of the nesting and courtship behaviour of this species in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), revealed that nesting and brood care differ according to the exposure of the nesting site to wave action and the nature of the substrate. The nests are simple and parental care is abbreviated in exposed, sandy sites whereas elaborate nests with brood chambers are excavated in sheltered areas with clayey substrates, and parental care is extensive. The implications of these findings to studies on cichlid breeding and the conservation ofT. zillii in Lake Kinneret are discussed.