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1.
Plant genomes encode a variety of protein kinases, and while some are functional homologues of animal and fungal kinases,
others have a novel structure. This review focuses on three groups of unusual membrane-associated plant protein kinases: receptor-like
protein kinases (RLKs), calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), and histidine protein kinases.
Animal RLKs have a putative extracellular domain, a single transmembrane domain, and a protein kinase domain. In plants, all
of the RLKs identified thus far have serine/threonine signature sequences, rather than the tyrosine-specific signature sequences
common to animals. Recent genetic experiments reveal that some of these plant kinases function in development and pathogen
resistance.
The CDPKs of plants and protozoans are composed of a single polypeptide with a protein kinase domain fused to a C-terminal
calmodulin-like domain containing four calcium-binding EF hands. No functional plant homologues of protein kinase C or Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase have been identified, and no animal or fungal CDPK homologues have been identified.
Recently, histidine kinases have been shown to participate in signaling pathways in plants and fungi. ETR1, an Arabidopsis histidine kinase homologue with three transmembrane domains, functions as a receptor for the plant hormone ethylene. G-protein-coupled
receptors, which often serve as hormone receptors in animal systems, have not yet been identified in plants.
Received: 18 August 1997/Revised: 23 December 1997 相似文献
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Ferritin, a protein widespread in nature, concentrates iron ∼1011–1012-fold above the solubility within a spherical shell of 24 subunits; it derives in plants and animals from a common ancestor
(based on sequence) but displays a cytoplasmic location in animals compared to the plastid in contemporary plants. Ferritin
gene regulation in plants and animals is altered by development, hormones, and excess iron; iron signals target DNA in plants
but mRNA in animals. Evolution has thus conserved the two end points of ferritin gene expression, the physiological signals
and the protein structure, while allowing some divergence of the genetic mechanisms. Comparison of ferritin gene organization
in plants and animals, made possible by the cloning of a dicot (soybean) ferritin gene presented here and the recent cloning
of two monocot (maize) ferritin genes, shows evolutionary divergence in ferritin gene organization between plants and animals
but conservation among plants or among animals; divergence in the genetic mechanism for iron regulation is reflected by the
absence in all three plant genes of the IRE, a highly conserved, noncoding sequence in vertebrate animal ferritin mRNA. In
plant ferritin genes, the number of introns (n= 7) is higher than in animals (n= 3). Second, no intron positions are conserved when ferritin genes of plants and animals are compared, although all ferritin
gene introns are in the coding region; within kingdoms, the intron positions in ferritin genes are conserved. Finally, secondary
protein structure has no apparent relationship to intron/exon boundaries in plant ferritin genes, whereas in animal ferritin
genes the correspondence is high. The structural differences in introns/exons among phylogenetically related ferritin coding
sequences and the high conservation of the gene structure within plant or animal kingdoms suggest that kingdom-specific functional
constraints may exist to maintain a particular intron/exon pattern within ferritin genes. In the case of plants, where ferritin
gene intron placement is unrelated to triplet codons or protein structure, and where ferritin is targeted to the plastid,
the selection pressure on gene organization may relate to RNA function and plastid/nuclear signaling.
Received: 25 July 1995 / Accepted: 3 October 1995 相似文献
4.
Nishiyama R Mizuno H Okada S Yamaguchi T Takenaka M Fukuzawa H Ohyama K 《Plant & cell physiology》1999,40(2):205-212
In plants, calcium-dependent calmodulin-independent protein kinases (CDPKs) are the predominant calcium-regulated protein kinases and their genes are encoded by a multigene family. A CDPK gene was cloned from a liverwort, Marchantia polymorpha, which showed a high level of sequence similarities to other higher plant CDPK genes. The liverwort CDPK gene consisted of 9 exons and 8 introns. The 6th and 7th exons (Exon 6A and Exon 6B) were almost identical except for 4-amino acid substitutions, both of which coded for EF-hands in the calcium-binding domain. RT-PCR analysis revealed that two species of mature mRNA containing either Exon 6A or Exon 6B were generated from a single CDPK gene by mutually exclusive alternative splicing. Both histidine-tagged fusion proteins derived from cDNAs containing either Exon 6A or Exon 6B exhibited calcium-dependent protein kinase activity in vitro. Preferential accumulation of the mature mRNA with Exon 6A detected in male sexual organ implies possible sexual control of the ratio between the two CDPK isozymes through alternative splicing. Functions and evolution of CDPKs are discussed based on the structure and expression of the liverwort CDPK gene. 相似文献
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Phylogenetic analysis of histone H3 protein sequences demonstrates the independent origin of the replacement histone H3 genes
in animals and in plants. Multiple introns in the replacement histone H3 genes of animals in a pattern distinct from that
in plant replacement H3 genes supports this conclusion. It is suggested that replacement H3 genes arose at the same time that,
independently, multicellular forms of animals and of plants evolved. Judged by the degree of invariant and functionally constrained
amino acid positions, histones H3 and H4, which form together the tetramer kernel of the nucleosome, have co-evolved with
equal rates of sequence divergence. Residues 31 and 87 in histone H3 are the only residues that consistently changed across
each gene duplication event that created functional replacement histone H3 variant forms. Once changed, these residues have
remained invariant across divergent speciation. This suggests that they are required to allow replacement histone H3 to participate
in the assembly of nucleosomes in non–S-phase cells. The abundant occurrence of polypyrimidine sequences in the introns of
all replacement H3 genes, and the replacement of an intron by a polypyrimidine motif upstream of the alfalfa replacement H3
gene, suggests a function. It is speculated that they may contribute to the characteristic cell-cycle-independent pattern
of replacement histone H3 genes by binding nucleosome-excluding proteins. 相似文献
7.
Hegeman AD Rodriguez M Han BW Uno Y Phillips GN Hrabak EM Cushman JC Harper JF Harmon AC Sussman MR 《Proteomics》2006,6(12):3649-3664
Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are a novel class of signaling molecules that have been broadly implicated in relaying specific calcium-mediated responses to biotic and abiotic stress as well as developmental cues in both plants and protists. Calcium-dependent autophosphorylation has been observed in almost all CDPKs examined, but a physiological role for autophosphorylation has not been demonstrated. To date, only a handful of autophosphorylation sites have been mapped to specific residues within CDPK amino acid sequences. In an attempt to gain further insight into this phenomenon, we have mapped autophosphorylation sites and compared these phosphorylation patterns among multiple CDPK isoforms. From eight CDPKs and two CDPK-related kinases from Arabidopsis thaliana and Plasmodium falciparum, 31 new autophosphorylation sites were characterized, which in addition to the previously described sites, allowed the identification of five conserved loci. Of the 35 total sites analyzed approximately one-half were observed in the N-terminal variable domain. Homology models were generated for the protein kinase and calmodulin-like domains, each containing two of the five conserved sites, to allow intelligent speculation regarding subsequent lines of investigation. 相似文献
8.
Hiroshi Wada Mari Kobayashi Riki Sato Nori Satoh Hitoshi Miyasaka Yoshihisa Shirayama 《Journal of molecular evolution》2002,54(1):118-128
To test the validity of intron–exon structure as a phylogenetic marker, the intron–exon structure of EF-1α genes was investigated
for starfish, acornworms, ascidians, larvaceans, and amphioxus and compared with that of vertebrates. Of the 11 distinct intron
insertion sites found within the coding regions of the deuterostome EF-1α genes, 7 are shared by several taxa, while the remainder
are unique to certain taxa. Examination of the shared introns of the deuterostome EF-1α gene revealed that independent intron
loss or intron insertion must have occurred in separate lineages of the deuterostome taxa. Maximum parsimony analysis of the
intron–exon data matrix recovered five parsimonious trees (consistency index = 0.867). From this result, we concluded that
the intron–exon structure of deuterostome EF-1α has evolved more dynamically than previously thought, rendering it unsuitable
as a phylogenetic marker. We also reconstructed an evolutionary history of intron insertion–deletion events on the deuterostome
phylogeny, based on several molecular phylogenetic studies. These analyses revealed that the deuterostome EF-1α gene has lost
individual introns more frequently than all introns simultaneously. 相似文献
9.
Choi KM Kim JY Moon SU Lee HW Sattabongkot J Na BK Kim DW Suh EJ Kim YJ Cho SH Lee HS Rhie HG Kim TS 《The Korean journal of parasitology》2010,48(4):319-324
A family of calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) is a unique enzyme which plays crucial roles in intracellular calcium signaling in plants, algae, and protozoa. CDPKs of malaria parasites are known to be key regulators for stage-specific cellular responses to calcium, a widespread secondary messenger that controls the progression of the parasite. In our study, we identified a gene encoding Plasmodium vivax CDPK4 (PvCDPK4) and characterized its molecular property and cellular localization. PvCDPK4 was a typical CDPK which had well-conserved N-terminal kinase domain and C-terminal calmodulin-like structure with 4 EF hand motifs for calcium-binding. The recombinant protein of EF hand domain of PvCDPK4 was expressed in E. coli and a 34 kDa product was obtained. Immunofluorescence assay by confocal laser microscopy revealed that the protein was expressed at the mature schizont of P. vivax. The expression of PvCDPK4-EF in schizont suggests that it may participate in the proliferation or egress process in the life cycle of this parasite. 相似文献
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Jiayue Feng Jing Li Hong Liu Qinghua Gao Ke Duan Zhirong Zou 《Plant Molecular Biology Reporter》2013,31(2):443-456
Plant calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) play vital roles in calcium signal transduction during various developmental processes and during responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Here, we isolated and characterized a CDPK gene designated FvCDPK1 from a wild diploid strawberry accession Heilongjiang-3 (Fragaria vesca L.). The FvCDPK1 gene contains 12 exons and 11 introns, and the sequences of most exons are highly conserved in higher plants. The full-length cDNA of FvCDPK1 contains 1,825 nucleotides with an open reading frame of 1,653 bp encoding a polypeptide of 550 amino acids. The deduced FvCDPK1 protein contains the basic features of typical plant CDPKs: a catalytic kinase domain and a regulatory calmodulin-like domain containing four EF-hand calcium-binding motifs. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that FvCDPK1 belongs to the plant CDPK family. When transiently expressed in onion epidermal cells, the FvCDPK1-GFP fusion protein was found to be localized in the nucleus. Expression analysis indicated that FvCDPK1 was expressed in fruits at different developmental and ripening stages, as well as in several tissues such as roots, runners, flowers, leaves, and meristems. Moreover, expression levels of FvCDPK1 were higher in meristems than in other vegetative tissues. Under abiotic stress conditions, however, FvCDPK1 was found to be upregulated upon abscisic acid, NaCl, cold-, or high-temperature treatments. Taken together, our data suggest that FvCDPK1 might play a role in various responses to abiotic stresses in strawberry. 相似文献
12.
Due to their critical involvement in the execution of the malaria parasite developmental pattern both in the mosquito vector and in the human host, Plasmodium calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) are considered promising candidates for the development of new tools to block malaria transmission. We report here that the phenothiazine trifluoperazine non-competitively inhibits Plasmodium falciparum CDPK4 in the micromolar range while other calmodulin antagonists only marginally affect the enzyme activity, and we propose the inhibition mechanism. Our results demonstrate that selective enzyme inhibition is achievable by targeting its calmodulin-like domain. This observation could be exploited for the discovery of innovative phenothiazine-based CDPK inhibitors of potential medical interest. 相似文献
13.
Introns are generally believed to evolve too rapidly and too erratically to be of much use in phylogenetic reconstructions.
Few phylogenetically informative intron sequences are available, however, to ascertain the validity of this supposition. In
the present study the supposition was tested on the example of the mammalian class II major histocompatibility complex (Mhc) genes of the DRB family. Since the Mhc genes evolve under balancing selection and are believed to recombine or rearrange frequently, the evolution of their introns
could be expected to be particularly rapid and subject to scrambling. Sequences of intron 4 and 5 DRB genes were obtained from polymerase chain reaction-amplified fragments of genomic DNA from representatives of six eutherian
orders—Primates, Scandentia, Chiroptera, Dermoptera, Lagomorpha, and Insectivora. Although short stretches of the introns
have indeed proved to be unalignable, the bulk of the intron sequences from all six orders, spanning >85 million years (my)
of evolution, could be aligned and used in a study of the tempo and mode of intron evolution. The analysis has revealed the
Mhc introns to evolve at a rate similar to that of other genes and of synonymous sites of non-Mhc genes. No evidence of homogenization or large-scale scrambling of the intron sequences could be found. The Mhc introns apparently evolve largely by point mutations and insertions/deletions. The phylogenetic signals contained in the
intron sequences could be used to identify Scandentia as the sister group of Primates, to support the existence of the Archonta
superorder, and to confirm the monophyly of the Chiroptera.
Received: 26 October 1998 / Accepted: 21 December 1998 相似文献
14.
In plants, calcium acts as a universal second messenger in various signal transduction pathways. The plant-specific calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) play important roles regulating downstream components of calcium signaling. We conducted a genome-wide analysis of rice CDPKs and identified 29 CDPK genes and eight closely related kinase genes, including five CDPK-related kinases (CRKs), one calcium and calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK) and two phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase kinase-related kinases (PEPRKs). The mRNA splicing sites of the rice CDPKs, CRKs and PEPRKs (but not OsCCaMK) are highly conserved, suggesting that these kinases are derived from a common ancestor. RNA gel blot analyses revealed that the majority of rice CDPK genes exhibited tissue-specific expression. Expression of OsCPK9 was elevated in seedlings infected by rice blast, indicating that this gene plays an important role in signaling in response to rice blast treatment. Our genomic and bioinformatic analyses will provide an important foundation for further functional dissection of the rice CDPK gene family. 相似文献
15.
A.D. Shutov H. Braun Yu.V. Chesnokov Ch. Horstmann I.A. Kakhovskaya H. Bäumlein 《Journal of molecular evolution》1998,47(4):486-492
The development of seeds as a specialized organ for the nutrition, protection, and dispersal of the next generation was an
important step in the evolution of land plants. Seed maturation is accompanied by massive synthesis of storage compounds such
as proteins, starch, and lipids. To study the processes of seed storage protein evolution we have partially sequenced storage
proteins from maturing seeds of representatives from the gymnosperm genera Gnetum, Ephedra, and Welwitschia—morphologically diverse and unusual taxa that are grouped in most formal systems into the common order Gnetales. Based on
partial N-terminal amino acid sequences, oligonucleotide primers were derived and used for PCR amplification and cloning of
the corresponding cDNAs. We also describe the structure of the nuclear gene for legumin of Welwitschia mirabilis. This first gnetalean nuclear gene structure contains introns in only two of the four conserved positions previously characterized
in other spermatophyte legumin genes. The distinct phylogenetic status of the gnetalean taxa is also reflected in a sequence
peculiarity of their legumin genes. A comparative analysis of exon/intron sequences leads to the hypothesis that legumin genes
from Gnetales belong to a monophyletic evolutionary branch clearly distinct from that of legumin genes of extant Ginkgoales
and Coniferales as well as from all angiosperms.
Received: 5 June 1997 / Accepted: 31 March 1998 相似文献
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Marco Siderius Hans Henskens Annette Porto-leBlanche John van Himbergen Alan Musgrave Michel Haring 《Planta》1997,202(1):76-84
Calcium-stimulated protein kinase activity in the flagella of the green alga Chlamydomonas moewusii (Gerloff) was characterised. Using SDS-PAGE and an on-blot phosphorylation assay, a 65-kDa protein was identified as the major
calcium-stimulated protein kinase. Its activity was directly stimulated by calcium, a characteristic of the calmodulin-like
domain protein kinases (CDPKs). Monoclonal antibodies raised against the CDPKα from soybean cross-reacted with the 65-kDa
protein in the flagella, and also with other proteins in the flagellum and cell body. The same monoclonal antibodies were
used to screen a C. moewusii cDNA expression library in order to isolate CDPK cDNAs from C. moewusii. The CCK1 cDNA encodes a protein with a kinase and calmodulin-like domain linked by a junction domain typical of CDPKs. From
Southern analyses, evidence was obtained for a CDPK gene family in C. moewusii and C. reinhardtii.
Received: 9 July 1996 / Accepted: 13 November 1996 相似文献
19.
Spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) nitrate reductase (NR) is inactivated by phosphorylation on serine-543, followed by binding of the phosphorylated enzyme
to 14-3-3 proteins. We purified one of several chromatographically distinct NRserine-543 kinases from spinach leaf extracts, and established by Edman sequencing of 80 amino acid residues that it is a calcium-dependent
(calmodulin-domain) protein kinase (CDPK), with peptide sequences very similar to Arabidopsis CDPK6 (accession no. U20623; also known as CPK3). The spinach CDPK was recognized by antibodies raised against Arabidopsis CDPK. Nitrate reductase was phosphorylated at serine-543 by bacterially expressed His-tagged CDPK6, and the phosphorylated
NR was inhibited by 14-3-3 proteins. However, the bacterially expressed CDPK6 had a specific activity approx. 200-fold lower
than that of the purified spinach enzyme. The physiological control of NR by CDPK is discussed, and the regulatory properties
of the purified CDPK are considered with reference to current models for reversible intramolecular binding of the calmodulin-like
domain to the autoinhibitory junction of CDPKs.
Received: 12 February 1998 / Accepted: 28 May 1998 相似文献
20.
Regulation of the inward K+ -channels in the guard cell plasma membranes plays impotant roles in regulation of stomatal movement in responses to exogenous and endogenous signals. It is well-known that elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ in guard cells inactivates these inward K + channels, and consequently inhibits stomatal opening or induces stomatal closing, yet the downstream molecular mechanism for the Ca2 + -mediated inhibition of the inward K+ channels remains unknown. The calmodulin-like domain protein kinases (CDPKs) have been identified as an unique group of protein kinases in higher plant cells. As a downstream regulator, CDPK may play roles in mediating Ca2+ regulation on the inward K+ -channels in stomatal guard cells. The authors have applied the patchclamp technique to investigate if CDPK be involved in the regulation of the inward K+ -channels in Vicia faba guard cells by cytosolic Ca2+ . The presence of the 1.5 μmol/L intracellular Ca2 + result-ed in inhibition of the inward K+ channel activity by 60%, while the addition of purified CDPK from the cytoplasmic side resulted in greater inhibition than Ca2+ alone. Histone Ⅲ-S and protamine, which is the substrate and substrate competitive inhibitor of CDPKs respectively, completely reversed the Ca2+ -induced inhibition of the inward K+ channel activities. These results are the first reported evidences for that CDPKs are involved in the Ca2+ -mediated inward K+ -channel regulation in guard cells. 相似文献