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1.
Ania Pinares Jorge Gonzlez-Astorga Andrew P. Vovides Julio Lazcano Wagner A. Vendrame 《Biochemical Systematics and Ecology》2009,37(4):385-394
The diversity and genetic structure of seven populations of Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A. DC, were analyzed by gel electrophoresis using 19 allozymes. The mean number of alleles per locus (A) was 1.49 and the percentage of polymorphic loci was relatively high (P = 48.09). The mean observed (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) were 0.20 and 0.17, respectively. The F-statistics revealed a high population structure (Fst = 0.34). Mean gene flow between population pairs was Nm = 0.96. Results were compared with those of other cycad species, and indicate that M. calocoma populations have become fragmented due to increasing pressures of habitat conversion and disturbance. Also, geographical isolation among populations has generated allele loss in relation to altitude. The establishment and maintenance of protected areas for in situ conservation is critical to preserve the high genetic diversity of M. calocoma. Conservation strategy guidelines have been specified. 相似文献
2.
Pongpun Prasankok Chirasak Sutcharit Piyoros Tongkerd Somsak Panha 《Biochemical Systematics and Ecology》2008,36(12):900-906
Allozyme variation was examined in 223 samples of the operculate land snail Cyclophorus fulguratus from 13 localities across three regions of Thailand. Using horizontal starch gel electrophoresis, 13 allozyme presumed loci (12 polymorphic) were screened. Heterozygosity was moderate in C. fulguratus (Hexp = 0.008–0.127) with a high genetic heterogeneity among samples (Fst = 0.734). Populations showed a greater genetic differentiation in central Thailand (Fst = 0.380) than in northeastern Thailand (Fst = 0.108), suggesting frequent gene flow among populations in northeastern Thailand. C. fulguratus exhibits a strong pattern of isolation by distance over the entire tested species range in Thailand and may potentially have been involved in an extensive local fragmentation. Results of the distance analysis revealed that large genetic divergence has occurred among the central, northeastern and eastern Thailand groups [D = 0.361–0.701], strongly suggesting populations from these three geographical regions may actually represent or else be evolving into separate species. 相似文献
3.
Tomomi Dan Hajime Ikeda Yuki Mitsui Yuji Isagi Hiroaki Setoguchi 《Conservation Genetics》2009,10(4):859-867
Continental island systems harbour relict biota and populations that might have migrated during glacial periods due to the
formation of landbridges. Here we analysed the genetic structure of relict populations of the temperate plant Shortia rotundifolia on the subtropical island of Iriomotejima, Japan. This plant, which inhabits riparian environments, is designated “near threatened”.
Only five extant populations have been found on the island. Our analyses of 10 nuclear microsatellite loci detected genetic
diversity of H
E = 0.488 and H
O = 0.358 for all populations of S. rotundifolia on the island. A high inbreeding coefficient for all populations together (F
IS = 0.316) and each population separately (F
IS = 0.258–0.497) might be attributable to crossing among closely related descendants within a population, an idea that is supported
by the relatedness coefficient. These results and an examination of the populations’ demographic histories suggest that the
extant populations on Iriomotejima have not experienced a recent population bottleneck. The five extant populations were genetically
differentiated (F
ST = 0.283; P < 0.001), suggesting low seed dispersal by gravity and/or low pollen flow via pollinators in the riparian environment. In
addition, population differentiation was not related to genetic distance, implying that at one time, ancestral populations
might have been distributed over a wider area of the island. However, population fragmentation and range contraction might
have occurred at random during the postglacial period. 相似文献
4.
The genetic diversity and population structure of the vulnerable Chinese Egret (Egretta eulophotes) were surveyed in the present study from three archipelagoes that cover the most southerly to the very northerly parts of
the Chinese distribution range of this species, using a 433-bp fragment of the mitochondrial control region (CR). Among 90
individual samples, 31 different haplotypes were defined by 30 polymorphic sites. Overall haplotype diversity, nucleotide
diversity and mean sequence divergence (p-distance) of this egret were 0.920, 0.0088 and 1.11%, respectively. NJ tree and
parsimony network for the CR haplotypes of the Chinese Egret showed little genetic structure, and analysis of molecular variance
indicated low but significant genetic differentiation (haplotype-based ΦST = 0.03267, P < 0.05 and distance-based ΦST = 0.04194, P < 0.05) among populations. The significant Fu’s F
S
tests (Fu’s F
S
= −16.946, P < 0.01) and mismatch distribution analysis (τ = 4.463, SSD = 0.0081, P = 0.12) suggested that the low genetic differentiation and little geographical structure of the genetic differentiation might
be explained by the population expansion. The Mantel test (haplotype-based F
ST, r = 0.639, P = 0.34 and distance-based F
ST, r = 0.947, P = 0.15) suggest that the significant genetic differentiation among populations was likely due to isolation by distance. 相似文献
5.
The management of remnant populations in highly fragmented landscapes requires a thorough understanding of the processes shaping
population persistence. We investigated relationships between population characteristics (i.e. size, density and pollinator
abundance), offspring performance, genetic diversity and differentiation in Trollius
europaeus, a plant with a nursery pollination system. In 19 populations of different sizes and located in north-east Switzerland, an
area which has undergone widespread land use changes over the last decades, we assessed neutral genetic diversity (N
total = 383) using AFLPs and plant performance in a greenhouse experiment (N
total = 584) using competition and control treatments. Overall genetic differentiation was low (F
ST = 0.033) with a marginal significant isolation by distance effect (P = 0.06) indicating (historical) genetic connectivity among the populations. Mean expected heterozygosity was H
E of 0.309 (0.0257–0.393) while inbreeding coefficients (F
IS) were significant in only three populations. Genetic diversity was not related to population size, plant density or pollinator
abundance. Plant performance was reduced under competition (P < 0.001) but the severity of competition was independent of genetic diversity and population size. In summary, remnant populations
of T. europaeus retain genetic diversity and seem capable of persisting under the present conditions within an agricultural matrix. T. europaeus is a perennial herb, thus it may require several generations for the negative effects of fragmentation and isolation to manifest.
Our findings indicate that small populations are as important as large populations for the conservation and management of
genetic resources. 相似文献
6.
Genetic variability and structure of natural and domesticated populations of Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea Morelet) 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Y.-Q. Zheng R. A. Ennos 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》1999,98(5):765-771
Isozyme analysis of seed samples derived from natural and managed populations of the tropical pine Pinus caribaea vars ‘bahamensis’ and ‘caribaea’ was used to assess population genetic structure in its native range and to detect changes
occurring during early domestication of the species. Baseline data from natural populations of the two varieties showed that
populations sampled as seed are characterized by high gene diversity (mean He=0.26) and a low level of inbreeding ( mean Fis=0.15). A UPGMA tree of genetic relatedness among populations indicates that the two varieties represent distinct evolutionary
units. Within each variety there is significant differentiation among populations, and this is greater for the more fragmented
populations of var ‘bahamensis’ (Fst=0.08) than for var ‘caribaea’ (Fst=0.02). Seed from a seed orchard population of var ‘caribaea’ established within its natural range showed no change in genetic
diversity but did show a reduced inbreeding coefficient (Fis=0.09) compared with its progenitor populations, suggesting a decrease in selfing and/or biparental inbreeding. A bulked seed
sample from an exotic plantation of var ‘bahamensis’ in Australia displayed a large increase in the inbreeding coefficient
(Fis=0.324) compared with that found in natural populations, possibly due to elevated self-fertilization. Finally, a bulked seed
sample from an exotic plantation population of var ‘caribaea’ from China showed enhanced genetic diversity, an increase in
the inbreeding coefficient and more linkage disequilibrium than its presumed progenitor populations. It was also genetically
divergent from them. RFLP analysis of chloroplast DNA variation in the Chinese sample suggested that seeds of the related
taxa P. elliottii and P. taeda, or seeds derived from hybridization with these taxa growing in the seed production area, had been included in the seed crop
during harvesting. We conclude that monitoring of appropriate genetic markers may be an effective means of identifying potentially
deleterious genetic changes occurring during forest tree domestication.
Received: 10 August 1998 / Accepted: 8 September 1998 相似文献
7.
Tamarix chinensis, with its important ecological significance, is a vital dominant plant in the Yellow River Delta of China. To understand
its genetic structure and population dynamics, five populations of T. chinensis, consisting of 140 individuals, were analyzed in this study using inter simple sequence repeat markers. Seventy-eight polymerase
chain reaction fragments were scored, of which 62 were polymorphic. The mean percentage of polymorphic loci (P), the mean Nei’s gene diversity (h), and the mean Shannon’s information index (I) were 79.5%, 0.239, and 0.363, respectively. These indexes indicated that a moderate level of genetic diversity existed in
T. chinensis populations of the Yellow River Delta. Both analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) (Φ
st = 0.169) and Popgene (G
st = 0.159) analyses revealed the low level of genetic differences among the five populations of T. chinensis. The results implied that relatively frequent gene flow existed among populations. However, slightly uneven genetic diversity
was also found among populations. Unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean and principal component analysis showed
that populations with similar soil salinity had a close relationship, rather than populations with closer geographical distance.
A significant negative correlation between genetic diversity and soil salinity of the five populations (r = −0.958, p < 0.01) showed that soil salinity played an important role in shaping the population genetic structure of T. chinensis in the Yellow River Delta, China. 相似文献
8.
Genetic structure, population size, and seed production of Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. (Ranunculaceae) in Central Germany 总被引:5,自引:2,他引:3
Pulsatilla vulgaris Mill. (Ranunculaceae) is a rare and rapidly declining grassland community species that was once widespread at a time when Central Germany was covered by steppe vegetation. Through the course of this study, the patterns of random-amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) variation among 11 populations of varying size were analysed to assess any possible local differentiation, in relation to spatial isolation, resulting from random genetic drift brought on by reduced population size and lack of migration between geographically isolated populations. Following results attained from methods including: multivariate analysis based on asymmetric Soerensen similarity, φST-statistics, and analysis of molecular variance, we were able to conclude that there is a high within-population variability (84.4%) and a weak, but significant, differentiation among populations (φST=0.17). A matrix correlation between genetic and geographical distances revealed that geographical differentiation was reflected in the RAPD profile (Mantel test: r=0.47,p=0.002). Further significant correlations were noted between population size and both percentage of polymorphic loci (p=0.02) and genetic diversity (p=0.03). An additional analysis of seed production showed that mean seed set, seed number, and mean seed mass per population could be attributed to differences in population size, whereas only seed mass was related to genetic variation. 相似文献
9.
Nigel D. Swarts Elizabeth A. Sinclair Siegfried L. Krauss Kingsley W. Dixon 《Conservation Genetics》2009,10(5):1199-1208
The Orchidaceae is characterised by a diverse range of life histories, reproductive strategies and geographic distribution,
reflected in a variety of patterns in the population genetic structure of different species. In this study, the genetic diversity
and structure was assessed within and among remnant populations of the critically endangered sexually deceptive orchid, Caladenia huegelii. This species has experienced severe recent habitat loss in a landscape marked by ancient patterns of population fragmentation
within the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, a global biodiversity hotspot. Using seven polymorphic microsatellite loci,
high levels of within-population diversity (mean alleles/locus = 6.73; mean H
E = 0.690), weak genetic structuring among 13 remnant populations (F
ST = 0.047) and a consistent deficit of heterozygotes from Hardy–Weinberg expectation were found across all populations (mean
F
IS = 0.22). Positive inbreeding coefficients are most likely due to Wahlund effects and/or inbreeding effects from highly correlated
paternity and typically low fruit set. Indirect estimates of gene flow (Nm = 5.09 using F
ST; Nm = 3.12 using the private alleles method) among populations reflects a historical capacity for gene flow through long distance
pollen dispersal by sexually deceived wasp pollinators and/or long range dispersal of dust-like orchid seed. However, current
levels of gene flow may be impacted by habitat destruction, fragmentation and reduced population size. A genetically divergent
population was identified, which should be a high priority for conservation managers. Very weak genetic differentiation indicates
that the movement and mixing of seeds from different populations for reintroduction programs should result in minimal negative
genetic effects. 相似文献
10.
Understanding the population genetic structure is a prerequisite for conservation of a species. The degree of genetic variability
characteristic of the mitochondrial DNA control region has been widely exploited in studies of population genetic structure
and can be useful in identifying meaningful population subdivisions. To estimate the genetic profile of the Yangtze finless
porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides asiaeorientalis), an endangered freshwater population endemic to China, the complete mtDNA control region was examined in 39 individuals
belonging to seven different stocks inhabiting the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Very low genetic diversity
was found (nucleotide diversity 0.0011± 0.0002 and haplotypic diversity 0.65± 0.05). The mtDNA genetic pattern of the Yangtze
population appears to indicate a founder event in its evolutionary history and to support the marine origin for this population.
Analyses by Fst and Φst yielded statistically significant population genetic structure (Fst = 0.44, P < 0.05; Φst = 0.36, P < 0.05). These results may have significant implications for the management and conservation of the Yangtze finless porpoise
in the future. 相似文献
11.
Hartings H Berardo N Mazzinelli GF Valoti P Verderio A Motto M 《TAG. Theoretical and applied genetics. Theoretische und angewandte Genetik》2008,117(6):831-842
In the present study we have analyzed the genetic diversity pattern in a sample of 54 Italian maize landraces, using morphological
traits and molecular markers. Although the 54 landraces surveyed in this study were restricted to Lombardy, the core region
of maize production in Italy, our data revealed a large genetic heterogeneity for both morphological and molecular traits
in the accessions analyzed. Additionally, our data confirm that the AFLP markers produced a high frequency of polymorphic
bands and were able to unequivocally fingerprint each of the landraces considered. Cluster analysis based on AFLP markers
displayed a clearer separation of the accessions in comparison to morphological data. Different populations were divided into
four major clusters reflecting the geographical origin and seasonal employment of the landraces analyzed. Molecular analysis
of variance showed significant (P < 0.01) differences among groups, among populations within groups, and among individuals within populations. Approximately
74% of the total variance could be attributed to differences within populations. Conversely, a lower level of differentiation
was detected among groups (~4%). Regarding population structures, the genetic distance between populations (F
ST = 0.25 ± 0.3) and the degree of inbreeding within groups (F
SC = 0.22 ± 0.2), did not diverge significantly, while both significantly differed from the degree of relatedness between markers
within groups (F
CT = 0.04 ± 0.03). Results are discussed in relation to a suitable conservation method. 相似文献
12.
A.‐L. Jacquemart C. Buyens L.‐M. Delescaille F. Van Rossum 《Plant biology (Stuttgart, Germany)》2021,23(1):193-204
- Many critically endangered plant species exist in small, genetically depauperate or inbred populations, making assisted gene flow interventions necessary for long‐term population viability. However, before such interventions are implemented, conservation practitioners must consider the genetic and demographic status of extant populations, which are strongly affected by species’ life‐history traits. In northwestern Europe, Juniperus communis, a dioecious, wind‐pollinated and bird‐dispersed gymnosperm, has been declining for the past century and largely exists in small, isolated and senescent populations.
- To provide useful recommendations for a recovery plan involving translocation of plants, we investigated genetic diversity and structure of populations in Belgium using four microsatellite and five plastid single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers.
- We detected no clonality in the populations, suggesting predominantly sexual reproduction. Populations exhibited high genetic diversity (He = 0.367–0.563) and low to moderate genetic differentiation (FST ≤ 0.133), with no clear geographic structure. Highly positive inbreeding coefficients (FIS = 0.221–0.507) were explained by null alleles, population substructuring and biparental inbreeding. No isolation by distance was observed among distant populations, but isolation at close geographic proximity was found. Patterns were consistent with high historical gene flow through pollen and seed dispersal at both short and long distances. We also tested four pre‐germination treatments among populations to improve germination rates; however, germination rates remained low and only cold‐stratification treatments induced germination in some populations.
- To bolster population regeneration, introductions of cuttings from several source populations are recommended, in combination with in situ management practices that improve seedling survival and with ex situ propagation.
13.
Farah Ishtiaq Sutirtha Dutta Bibek Yumnam Yadvendradev V. Jhala 《Conservation Genetics》2011,12(3):857-863
The great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) is an endemic endangered bird of the Indian subcontinent with a declining population, as a result of hunting and continuing
habitat loss. In this first genetic study of this little-known species, we investigate the diversity of the mitochondrial
DNA (hypervariable control region II and cytochrome b gene) among samples (n = 63) from five states within the current distribution range of great Indian bustards in India. We find just three haplotypes
defined by three variable sites, a comparatively low genetic diversity of π = 0.0021 ± 0.0012 for cytochrome b, 0.0008 ± 0.0007 for the control region (CR), and 0.0017 ± 0.0069 for combined regions and no phylogeographic structure between
populations. We provide evidence for a bottleneck event, estimate an effective population size (Ne) that is roughly concordant with recent population size estimates based on field surveys (~200 to 400), but extremely low
for a widely distributed species. We also discuss the conservation implications. Based on our findings, we strongly recommend
upgrading the IUCN threat status from Endangered to Critically Endangered. 相似文献
14.
Commiphora wightii is a medicinally important endangered species endemic to the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India and adjoining areas of Pakistan.
The populations of this species are declining sharply because of its extensive use as a natural herb. Random amplified polymorphic
DNA analysis was conducted to find the genetic variation among 7 populations of C. wightii. Of the 100 random primers screened, 44 primers yielded 220 loci. Statistical analysis indicated low genetic diversity (H
pop = 0.0958; I = 0.1498; mean polymorphic loci = 14.28%), and high genetic differentiation among the populations (G
ST = 0.3990; AMOVA Φ
ST of 0.3390; Bayesian θ
(II) = 0.3002). The low genetic diversity may be due to geographic isolation and restricted gene flow (N
m = 0.7533) between the fragmented populations. Unsustainable utilization of the plant has fragmented the population continuum
which served the purpose of genetic exchange between populations. Mantel’s test was performed which revealed a highly significant
positive correlation between genetic and geographic distance (r
2 = 0.614, P = 0.023) among the populations studied. Low variation can also be attributed to poor seed setting and the slow growth pattern
of the species, which is also an apomict. In UPGMA dendrogram the Commiphora wightii samples were divided into two major and one minor cluster. These findings can serve as a guide to preserving the genetic
resources of this medicinal plant species. 相似文献
15.
为揭示我国东部归化水仙(Narcissus tazetta var. chinensis)的群体遗传多样性,利用2个叶绿体基因mat K和trn H-psb A片段对采自沪、浙、闽的5个代表群体的49株水仙进行了评估。结果表明,双基因联合序列的总长为1443bp,共定义6个单倍型,各归化群体的遗传多样性水平为DLSYPTDNJD=ZZCMD。AMOVA分析表明,群体内变异为遗传变异的主要来源(91.98%),群体间的遗传分化较低(Fst=0.080 22)。群体物种水平上的谱系结构不显著(Nst=0.020Gst=0.031;P0.05)。Mantel检验表明水仙群体间的遗传距离与地理距离呈显著的线性相关(r=0.929,P=0.02 0.05)。中性检验和错配分布分析结果均暗示水仙群体背离了快速扩张模型的假设。单倍型分布的中介网络图结合系统发育NJ树均将所有群体划分为2大分支。因此,我国东部沿海水仙归化群体整体遗传多样性水平较低,各群体间遗传分化较弱,遗传变异主要来自群体内,物种近期未经历扩张事件,可能是基因流受海岛隔离、自身生物学特征、生境异质性与及人为干扰的综合作用影响。 相似文献
16.
Genetic diversity of the Chestnut blight fungus Cryphonectria parasitica in four French populations assessed by microsatellite markers 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Microsatellites are powerful markers to infer population genetic parameters. Here, 13 microsatellite loci isolated from a genomic and a cDNA library of Cryphonectria parasitica were used to characterize the genetic diversity and structure of four French populations. Twelve of these loci were polymorphic within populations, and average gene diversity (He) was estimated to be 0.35. There was a lower genetic diversity in a south-eastern population relative to three south-western populations. In these three populations, microsatellite genotypic diversity was higher than vegetative compatibility type diversity. A high genetic differentiation (GST = 0.27) suggested a low gene flow and/or founder effects of French populations which are in agreement with low dispersal of spores and different introductions of this species in southern France. This study demonstrates the significance of these microsatellite loci to assess gene flow and reproductive system in this important pathogen. 相似文献
17.
Carex moorcroftii Falc. ex Boott is a rhizomatous clonal sedge dominating vast alpine steppe and meadow vegetations in the hinterland of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. To reveal the genetic and clonal structure of this species, nine populations were investigated using ten inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. As compared to other rhizomatous Carex species, C. moorcroftii had lower genetic diversity (Hs = 0.10) at population level and higher genetic differentiation (Gst = 0.66) and lower gene flow (Nm = 0.26) between populations. Clonal diversity in C. moorcroftii in terms of Simpson index (D = 0.65) was comparable to that in other clonal species while lower than that in Carex species from the arctic and subarctic areas. The ratio of clonal diversity to genetic variation in C. moorcroftii was closely correlated with latitude, enabling a speculation about the northern migration of this species on this plateau. 相似文献
18.
Patrick Larkin Elizabeth Quevedo Stephanie Salinas Joyce Parker Krista Storey Beau Hardegree 《Aquatic Botany》2006
The south Texas Gulf coast is a unique ecosystem that contains a number of different bay systems. We used random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers to assess genetic diversity, differentiation and genetic distance between populations from two different bays that differed significantly in terms of flowering rate and disturbance. We found that while each bay contained a number of unique RAPD profiles, the average genetic diversity in each population was low. Genetic distance between the two populations was also low (Fst = 0.084) and the majority (92%) of the genetic variation was attributed to differences between individuals within populations. The population from the Laguna Madre location, however, was polymorphic for a larger number of markers, had a higher average genetic diversity and a larger number of unique RAPD profiles. The higher level of flowering at this location most likely accounts for the higher diversity. 相似文献
19.
《Aquatic Botany》2007,86(1):69-75
To obtain accurate estimates of population structure for purposes of conservation planning for wild lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) in central China, genetic diversity among and within six populations, and clonal diversity within another two populations of the species were analyzed. The genetic diversity was high (percentage of polymorphic bands, PPB = 90.0%; Shannon's information index, I = 0.383 ± 0.234) at the species level, but low within individual study populations (PPB = 35.8%; Shannon's information index I = 0.165 ± 0.241). The mean coefficient of gene differentiation (Gst) was 0.570, indicating that 43.0% of the genetic diversity resided within the population. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that 50.47% of the genetic diversity among the study populations was attributed to geographical location while 12.3% was attributed to differences in their habitats. An overall value of mean estimated number of gene flow (Nm = 0.377) indicated that there was limited gene flow among the sampled populations. The level of clonal diversity found within the populations was considerably high (Simpson's diversity index, D = 0.985) indicating that clonal diversity contributes to a major extent to the overall genetic variation in the genetic structure of N. nucifera. On the basis of the high Gst and D values detected in this study we recommend that any future conservation plans for this species should be specifically designed to include those representative populations with the highest genetic variation for both in situ conservation and germplasm collection expeditions. 相似文献
20.
Genetic diversity and population structure of 9 populations of Bufo gargarizans with total 111 samples in China were assessed using seven microsatellite loci. The analysed microsatellite markers produced
161 alleles, varied from 9 to 38 alleles each locus. The number of alleles per population per locus ranged from 4.43 to 10.29.
Polymorphic information content showed that all seven loci were highly informative (mean = 0.810 ± 0.071). The average observed
heterozygosity was less than the expected (0.353 ± 0.051 and 0.828 ± 0.067, respectively). All tested populations gave significant
departures from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Genetic differentiation among the populations was considerably high with the overall
and pairwise F
ST values (mean = 0.160 ± 0.039), and showed fairly high level of inbreeding (indicated by a mean F
IS value of 0.504 ± 0.051) and global heterozygote deficit. In comparison to other amphibian studies; however, our results suggested
that the level of genetic structuring in B. gargarizans was relatively low in the geographical scale of the study area. Interestingly, the speculated population bottleneck was found
to be absent and the analyses provide only weak evidence for a recent contraction in size even though there was severe inbreeding
(indicated by the F
IS value) in the Chinese toad populations. 相似文献