Regiospecificity of Two Multicomponent Monooxygenases from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1: Molecular Basis for Catabolic Adaptation of This Microorganism to Methylated Aromatic Compounds

The pathways for degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons are constantly modified by a variety of genetic mechanisms. Genetic studies carried out with Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 suggested that the tou operon coding for toluene o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) was recently recruited into a preexisting pathway that already possessed the ph operon coding for phenol hydroxylase (PH). This apparently resulted in a redundancy of enzymatic activities, because both enzymes are able to hydroxylate (methyl)benzenes to (methyl)catechols via the intermediate production of (methyl)phenols. We investigated the kinetics and regioselectivity of toluene and o-xylene oxidation using Escherichia coli cells expressing ToMO and PH complexes. Our data indicate that in the recombinant system the enzymes act sequentially and that their catalytic efficiency and regioselectivity optimize the degradation of toluene and o-xylene, both of which are growth substrates. The main product of toluene oxidation by ToMO is p-cresol, the best substrate for PH, which catalyzes its transformation to 4-methylcatechol. The sequential action of the two enzymes on o-xylene leads, via the intermediate 3,4-dimethylphenol, to the exclusive production of 3,4-dimethylcatechol, the only dimethylcatechol isomer that can serve as a carbon and energy source after further metabolic processing. Moreover, our data strongly support a metabolic explanation for the acquisition of the ToMO operon by P. stutzeri OX1. It is possible that using the two enzymes in a concerted fashion confers on the strain a selective advantage based on the ability of the microorganism to optimize the efficiency of the use of nonhydroxylated aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, and o-xylene.     

Tuning the specificity of the recombinant multicomponent toluene o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas sp. strain OX1 for the biosynthesis of tyrosol from 2-phenylethanol

Biocatalysis is today a standard technology for the industrial production of several chemicals, and the number of biotransformation processes running on a commercial scale is constantly increasing. Among biocatalysts, bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs), a diverse group of nonheme diiron enzymes that activate dioxygen, are of primary interest due to their ability to catalyze a variety of complex oxidations, including reactions of mono- and dihydroxylation of phenolic compounds. In recent years, both directed evolution and rational design have been successfully used to identify the molecular determinants responsible for BMM regioselectivity and to improve their activity toward natural and nonnatural substrates. Toluene o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) is a BMM isolated from Pseudomonas sp. strain OX1 which hydroxylates a wide spectrum of aromatic compounds. In this work we investigate the use of recombinant ToMO for the biosynthesis in recombinant cells of Escherichia coli strain JM109 of 4-hydroxyphenylethanol (tyrosol), an antioxidant present in olive oil, from 2-phenylethanol, a cheap and commercially available substrate. We initially found that wild-type ToMO is unable to convert 2-phenylethanol to tyrosol. This was explained by using a computational model which analyzed the interactions between ToMO active-site residues and the substrate. We found that residue F176 is the major steric hindrance for the correct positioning of the reaction intermediate leading to tyrosol production into the active site of the enzyme. Several mutants were designed and prepared, and we found that the combination of different mutations at position F176 with mutation E103G allows ToMO to convert up to 50% of 2-phenylethanol into tyrosol in 2 h.     

Molecular Determinants of the Regioselectivity of Toluene/o-Xylene Monooxygenase from Pseudomonas sp. Strain OX1

Bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs) are a heterogeneous family of di-iron monooxygenases which share the very interesting ability to hydroxylate aliphatic and/or aromatic hydrocarbons. Each BMM possesses defined substrate specificity and regioselectivity which match the metabolic requirements of the strain from which it has been isolated. Pseudomonas sp. strain OX1, a strain able to metabolize o-, m-, and p-cresols, produces the BMM toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO), which converts toluene to a mixture of o-, m-, and p-cresol isomers. In order to investigate the molecular determinants of ToMO regioselectivity, we prepared and characterized 15 single-mutant and 3 double-mutant forms of the ToMO active site pocket. Using the Monte Carlo approach, we prepared models of ToMO-substrate and ToMO-reaction intermediate complexes which allowed us to provide a molecular explanation for the regioselectivities of wild-type and mutant ToMO enzymes. Furthermore, using binding energy values calculated by energy analyses of the complexes and a simple mathematical model of the hydroxylation reaction, we were able to predict quantitatively the regioselectivities of the majority of the variant proteins with good accuracy. The results show not only that the fine-tuning of ToMO regioselectivity can be achieved through a careful alteration of the shape of the active site but also that the effects of the mutations on regioselectivity can be quantitatively predicted a priori.     

Substrate Specificity and Enantioselectivity of 4-Hydroxyacetophenone Monooxygenase

The 4-hydroxyacetophenone monooxygenase (HAPMO) from Pseudomonas fluorescens ACB catalyzes NADPH- and oxygen-dependent Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of 4-hydroxyacetophenone to the corresponding acetate ester. Using the purified enzyme from recombinant Escherichia coli, we found that a broad range of carbonylic compounds that are structurally more or less similar to 4-hydroxyacetophenone are also substrates for this flavin-containing monooxygenase. On the other hand, several carbonyl compounds that are substrates for other Baeyer-Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs) are not converted by HAPMO. In addition to performing Baeyer-Villiger reactions with aromatic ketones and aldehydes, the enzyme was also able to catalyze sulfoxidation reactions by using aromatic sulfides. Furthermore, several heterocyclic and aliphatic carbonyl compounds were also readily converted by this BVMO. To probe the enantioselectivity of HAPMO, the conversion of bicyclohept-2-en-6-one and two aryl alkyl sulfides was studied. The monooxygenase preferably converted (1R,5S)-bicyclohept-2-en-6-one, with an enantiomeric ratio (E) of 20, thus enabling kinetic resolution to obtain the (1S,5R) enantiomer. Complete conversion of both enantiomers resulted in the accumulation of two regioisomeric lactones with moderate enantiomeric excess (ee) for the two lactones obtained [77% ee for (1S,5R)-2 and 34% ee for (1R,5S)-3]. Using methyl 4-tolyl sulfide and methylphenyl sulfide, we found that HAPMO is efficient and highly selective in the asymmetric formation of the corresponding (S)-sulfoxides (ee >99%). The biocatalytic properties of HAPMO described here show the potential of this enzyme for biotechnological applications.     

Novel biotransformation processes of dihydroartemisinic acid and artemisinic acid to their hydroxylated derivatives by two plant cell culture systems

Novel biotransformation processes of dihydroartemisinic acid (1) and artemisinic acid (2) to their hydroxylated derivatives were investigated using the cell suspension cultures of Catharanthus roseus and Panax quinquefolium crown galls as two biocatalyst systems. Five biotransformation products, 3-α-hydroxydihydroartemisinic acid (3), 3-β-hydroxydihydroartemisinic acid (4), 15-hydroxy-cadin-4-en-12-oic acid (5), 3-α-hydroxyartemisinic acid (6) and 3-β-hydroxyartemisinic acid (7), were isolated by chromatograph methods and identified by the analysis of ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, and ESI-MS spectra. Compounds 3–5 were obtained for the first time by biotransformation process. It was also the first time to transform artemisinic acid to yield epimeric 3-hydroxy artemisinic acids in plant cell culture system. The biocatalyst system of C. roseus cell cultures showed a great capacity of regio- and stereo-selective hydroxylation in allyl group of the exogenous substrates. The results also showed that the biocatalyst system of P. quinquefolium crown galls possessed the ability to hydroxylate propenyl group of exogenous substrates in a regio- and substrate-selective manner. Furthermore, the in vitro antitumor activity of the hydroxyl products was evaluated by MTT assay. The result indicated that α-hydroxyl products possessed stronger antitumor activity than β-hydroxyl products against the HepG2 and GLC-82 cell lines.     

Biotechnological Production of Caffeic Acid by Bacterial Cytochrome P450 CYP199A2

Caffeic acid is a biologically active molecule that has various beneficial properties, including antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we explored the catalytic potential of a bacterial cytochrome P450, CYP199A2, for the biotechnological production of caffeic acid. When the CYP199A2 enzyme was reacted with p-coumaric acid, it stoichiometrically produced caffeic acid. The crystal structure of CYP199A2 shows that Phe at position 185 is situated directly above, and only 6.35 Å from, the heme iron. This F185 residue was replaced with hydrophobic or hydroxylated amino acids using site-directed mutagenesis to create mutants with novel and improved catalytic properties. In whole-cell assays with the known substrate of CYP199A2, 2-naphthoic acid, only the wild-type enzyme hydroxylated 2-naphthoic acid at the C-7 and C-8 positions, whereas all of the active F185 mutants exhibited a preference for C-5 hydroxylation. Interestingly, several F185 mutants (F185V, F185L, F185I, F185G, and F185A mutants) also acquired the ability to hydroxylate cinnamic acid, which was not hydroxylated by the wild-type enzyme. These results demonstrate that F185 is an important residue that controls the regioselectivity and the substrate specificity of CYP199A2. Furthermore, Escherichia coli cells expressing the F185L mutant exhibited 5.5 times higher hydroxylation activity for p-coumaric acid than those expressing the wild-type enzyme. By using the F185L whole-cell catalyst, the production of caffeic acid reached 15 mM (2.8 g/liter), which is the highest level so far attained in biotechnological production of this compound.     

Phenol Hydroxylase and Toluene/o-Xylene Monooxygenase from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1: Interplay between Two Enzymes

Degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by aerobic bacteria is generally divided into an upper pathway, which produces dihydroxylated aromatic intermediates by the action of monooxygenases, and a lower pathway, which processes these intermediates down to molecules that enter the citric acid cycle. Bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases (BMMs) are a family of enzymes divided into six distinct groups. Most bacterial genomes code for only one BMM, but a few cases (3 out of 31) of genomes coding for more than a single monooxygenase have been found. One such case is the genome of Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1, in which two different monooxygenases have been found, phenol hydroxylase (PH) and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO). We have already demonstrated that ToMO is an oligomeric protein whose subunits transfer electrons from NADH to oxygen, which is eventually incorporated into the aromatic substrate. However, no molecular data are available on the structure and on the mechanism of action of PH. To understand the metabolic significance of the association of two similar enzymatic activities in the same microorganism, we expressed and characterized this novel phenol hydroxylase. Our data indicate that the PH P component of PH transfers electrons from NADH to a subcomplex endowed with hydroxylase activity. Moreover, a regulatory function can be suggested for subunit PH M. Data on the specificity and the kinetic constants of ToMO and PH strongly support the hypothesis that coupling between the two enzymatic systems optimizes the use of nonhydroxylated aromatic molecules by the draining effect of PH on the product(s) of oxidation catalyzed by ToMO, thus avoiding phenol accumulation.     

Influence of various phenolic compounds on phenol hydroxylase activity of a Trichosporon cutaneum strain

The phenol-degrading strain Trichosporon cutaneum R57 utilizes various aromatic and aliphatic compounds as a sole carbon and energy source. The intracellular activities of phenol hydroxylase [EC 1.14.13.7] of a Trichosporon cutaneum R57 strain grown on phenol (0.5 g/l) were measured. Different toxic phenol derivatives (cresols, nitrophenols and hydroxyphenols) were used as substrates in the reaction mixture for determination of the enzyme activity. The data obtained showed that the investigated enzyme was capable to hydroxylate all applied aromatic substrates. The measured activities of phenol hydroxylase varied significantly depending on the aromatic compounds used as substrates. The rate of phenol hydroxylase activity with phenol as a substrate (1.0 U/mg total cell protein) was accepted as 100%.     

Mutation of Glutamic Acid 103 of Toluene o-Xylene Monooxygenase as a Means To Control the Catabolic Efficiency of a Recombinant Upper Pathway for Degradation of Methylated Aromatic Compounds

Toluene o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) and phenol hydroxylase (PH) of Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 act sequentially in a recombinant upper pathway for the degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons. The catalytic efficiency and regioselectivity of these enzymes optimize the degradation of growth substrates like toluene and o-xylene. For example, the sequential monooxygenation of o-xylene by ToMO and PH leads to almost exclusive production of 3,4-dimethylcatechol (3,4-DMC), the only isomer that can be further metabolized by the P. stutzeri meta pathway. We investigated the possibility of producing ToMO mutants with modified regioselectivity compared with the regioselectivity of the wild-type protein in order to alter the ability of the recombinant upper pathway to produce methylcatechol isomers from toluene and to produce 3,4-DMC from o-xylene. The combination of mutant (E103G)-ToMO and PH increased the production of 4-methylcatechol from toluene and increased the formation of 3,4-DMC from o-xylene. These data strongly support the idea that the products and efficiency of the metabolic pathway can be controlled not only through mutations that increase the catalytic efficiency of the enzymes involved but also through tuning the substrate specificity and regioselectivity of the enzymes. These findings are crucial for the development of future metabolic engineering strategies.     

Initiation and inhibition of free-radical processes in biochemical peroxide systems: A review

The role of complexes containing oxygen or peroxide in monooxygenase systems and models thereof, as well as in peroxidase-and quasi-peroxidase-catalyzed processes, has been reviewed. Pathways of conversion of these intermediate complexes involving single-electron (radical) and two-electron (heterolytic) mechanisms are dealt with. Peroxidase-catalyzed co-oxidation of aromatic amines and phenols is analyzed; inhibition and activation of peroxidase-catalyzed reactions are characterized quantitatively. Oxidation of chromogenic substrates (ABTS, OPD, and TMB) in the presence of phenolic inhibitors or polydisulfides of substituted phenols is characterized by inhibition constants (K _i, μmol). Activation of peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of the same substrates is characterized by the degree (coefficient) of activation (α, M^?1), which was determined for 2-aminothiazole, melamine, tetrazole, and its 5-substituted derivatives. Examples of applied use of peroxidase-catalyzed enzyme and model systems are given (oxidation of organic compounds, chemical analysis, enzyme immunoassay, tests for antioxidant activity of biological fluids).     

Regiospecificity of two multicomponent monooxygenases from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1: molecular basis for catabolic adaptation of this microorganism to methylated aromatic compounds

The pathways for degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons are constantly modified by a variety of genetic mechanisms. Genetic studies carried out with Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 suggested that the tou operon coding for toluene o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) was recently recruited into a preexisting pathway that already possessed the ph operon coding for phenol hydroxylase (PH). This apparently resulted in a redundancy of enzymatic activities, because both enzymes are able to hydroxylate (methyl)benzenes to (methyl)catechols via the intermediate production of (methyl)phenols. We investigated the kinetics and regioselectivity of toluene and o-xylene oxidation using Escherichia coli cells expressing ToMO and PH complexes. Our data indicate that in the recombinant system the enzymes act sequentially and that their catalytic efficiency and regioselectivity optimize the degradation of toluene and o-xylene, both of which are growth substrates. The main product of toluene oxidation by ToMO is p-cresol, the best substrate for PH, which catalyzes its transformation to 4-methylcatechol. The sequential action of the two enzymes on o-xylene leads, via the intermediate 3,4-dimethylphenol, to the exclusive production of 3,4-dimethylcatechol, the only dimethylcatechol isomer that can serve as a carbon and energy source after further metabolic processing. Moreover, our data strongly support a metabolic explanation for the acquisition of the ToMO operon by P. stutzeri OX1. It is possible that using the two enzymes in a concerted fashion confers on the strain a selective advantage based on the ability of the microorganism to optimize the efficiency of the use of nonhydroxylated aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene, and o-xylene.     

The Coprophilous Mushroom Coprinus radians Secretes a Haloperoxidase That Catalyzes Aromatic Peroxygenation

Coprophilous and litter-decomposing species (26 strains) of the genus Coprinus were screened for peroxidase activities by using selective agar plate tests and complex media based on soybean meal. Two species, Coprinus radians and C. verticillatus, were found to produce peroxidases, which oxidized aryl alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes at pH 7 (a reaction that is typical for heme-thiolate haloperoxidases). The peroxidase of Coprinus radians was purified to homogeneity and characterized. Three fractions of the enzyme, CrP I, CrP II, and CrP III, with molecular masses of 43 to 45 kDa as well as isoelectric points between 3.8 and 4.2, were identified after purification by anion-exchange and size exclusion chromatography. The optimum pH of the major fraction (CrP II) for the oxidation of aryl alcohols was around 7, and an H₂O₂ concentration of 0.7 mM was most suitable regarding enzyme activity and stability. The apparent K_m values for ABTS [2,2′-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazolinesulfonic acid)], 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, benzyl alcohol, veratryl alcohol, and H₂O₂ were 49, 342, 635, 88, and 1,201 μM, respectively. The N terminus of CrP II showed 29% and 19% sequence identity to Agrocybe aegerita peroxidase (AaP) and chloroperoxidase, respectively. The UV-visible spectrum of CrP II was highly similar to that of resting-state cytochrome P450 enzymes, with the Soret band at 422 nm and additional maxima at 359, 542, and 571 nm. The reduced carbon monoxide complex showed an absorption maximum at 446 nm, which is characteristic of heme-thiolate proteins. CrP brominated phenol to 2- and 4-bromophenols and selectively hydroxylated naphthalene to 1-naphthol. Hence, after AaP, CrP is the second extracellular haloperoxidase-peroxygenase described so far. The ability to extracellularly hydroxylate aromatic compounds seems to be the key catalytic property of CrP and may be of general significance for the biotransformation of poorly available aromatic substances, such as lignin, humus, and organopollutants in soil litter and dung environments. Furthermore, aromatic peroxygenation is a promising target of biotechnological studies.     

Analysis of the Gene Cluster Encoding Toluene/o-Xylene Monooxygenase from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1

The toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase cloned from Pseudomonas stutzeri OX1 displays a very broad range of substrates and a very peculiar regioselectivity, because it is able to hydroxylate more than one position on the aromatic ring of several hydrocarbons and phenols. The nucleotide sequence of the gene cluster coding for this enzymatic system has been determined. The sequence analysis revealed the presence of six open reading frames (ORFs) homologous to other genes clustered in operons coding for multicomponent monooxygenases found in benzene- and toluene-degradative pathways cloned from Pseudomonas strains. Significant similarities were also found with multicomponent monooxygenase systems for phenol, methane, alkene, and dimethyl sulfide cloned from different bacterial strains. The knockout of each ORF and complementation with the wild-type allele indicated that all six ORFs are essential for the full activity of the toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase in Escherichia coli. This analysis also shows that despite its activity on both hydrocarbons and phenols, toluene/ o-xylene monooxygenase belongs to a toluene multicomponent monooxygenase subfamily rather than to the monooxygenases active on phenols.     

Novel Reactivity of Dibenzothiophene Monooxygenase from Bacillus subtilis WU-S2B

Dibenzothiophene monooxygenase (BdsC) from Bacillus subtilis WU-S2B utilized aromatic compounds not having sulfur atoms as substrates. It acted on indole and its derivatives to form indigoid pigments, and also utilized indoline and phenoxazine. In addition, BdsC exhibited activity toward benzothiophene (BT) derivatives but not BT, suggesting that it shows wide reactivity toward aromatic compounds.     

Conversion of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,methyl naphthalenes and dibenzofuran by two fungal peroxygenases

The aim of this work has been to study the substrate specificity of two aromatic peroxygenases concerning polyaromatic compounds of different size and structure as well as to identify the key metabolites of their oxidation. Thus, we report here on new pathways and reactions for 2-methylnaphthalene, 1-methylnaphthalene, dibenzofuran, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene and pyrene catalyzed by peroxygenases from Agrocybe aegerita and Coprinellus radians (abbreviated as AaP and CrP). AaP hydroxylated the aromatic rings of all substrates tested at different positions, whereas CrP showed a limited capacity for aromatic ring-hydroxylation and did not hydroxylate phenanthrene but preferably oxygenated fluorene at the non-aromatic C₉-carbon and methylnaphthalenes at the side chain. The results demonstrate for the first time the broad substrate specificity of fungal peroxygenases for polyaromatic compounds, and they are discussed in terms of their biocatalytic and environmental implications.     

Engineering of a psychrophilic bacterium for the bioremediation of aromatic compounds

Microbial degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons has been studied with the aim of developing applications for the removal of toxic compounds. Efforts have been directed toward the genetic manipulation of mesophilic bacteria to improve their ability to degrade pollutants, even though many pollution problems occur in sea waters and in effluents of industrial processes which are characterized by low temperatures. From these considerations the idea of engineering a psychrophilic microorganism for the oxidation of aromatic compounds was developed.In a previous paper it was demonstrated that the recombinant Antarctic Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125 (PhTAC/tou) expressing a toluene-o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) is able to convert several aromatic compounds into corresponding catechols. In our work we improved the metabolic capability of PhTAC/tou cells by combining action of recombinant ToMO enzyme with that of the endogenous P. haloplanktis TAC125 laccase-like protein. This strategy allowed conferring new and specific degradative capabilities to a bacterium isolated from an unpolluted environment; indeed engineered PhTAC/tou cells are able to grow on aromatic compounds as sole carbon and energy sources. Our approach demonstrates the possibility to use the engineered psychrophilic bacterium for the bioremediation of chemically contaminated marine environments and/or cold effluents.     

Characterization of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP154H1 from the thermophilic soil bacterium Thermobifida fusca

Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases are valuable biocatalysts due to their ability to hydroxylate unactivated carbon atoms using molecular oxygen. We have cloned the gene for a new cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, named CYP154H1, from the moderately thermophilic soil bacterium Thermobifida fusca. The enzyme was overexpressed in Escherichia coli at up to 14% of total soluble protein and purified to homogeneity in three steps. CYP154H1 activity was reconstituted using putidaredoxin reductase and putidaredoxin from Pseudomonas putida DSM 50198 as surrogate electron transfer partners. In biocatalytic reactions with different aliphatic and aromatic substrates of varying size, the enzyme converted small aromatic and arylaliphatic compounds like ethylbenzene, styrene, and indole. Furthermore, CYP154H1 also accepted different arylaliphatic sulfides as substrates chemoselectively forming the corresponding sulfoxides and sulfones. The enzyme is moderately thermostable with an apparent melting temperature of 67°C and exhibited still 90% of initial activity after incubation at 50°C.     

In vitro mutagenic,antimutagenic, and antioxidant activities evaluation and biotransformation of some bioactive 4‐substituted 1‐(2‐methoxyphenyl)piperazine derivatives

In vitro mutagenic, antimutagenic, and antioxidant potency evaluation and biotransformation of six novel 4‐substituted 1‐(2‐methoxyphenyl)piperazine derivatives demonstrating antidepressant‐like activity were investigated. Mutagenic and antimutagenic properties were assessed using the Ames test; free radical scavenging activity was evaluated with 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay and biotransformation was performed with liver microsomes. It was found that all tested compounds are not mutagenic in bacterial strains TA100 and TA1535 and exhibit antimutagenic effects in the Ames test. Noteworthy, compounds possessing propyl linker between phenoxyl and N‐(2‐methoxyphenyl)piperazine displayed more pronounced antimutagenic properties than derivatives with ethoxyethyl linker. Additionally, compounds 2 and 6 in vitro biotransformation showed that primarily their hydroxylated or O‐dealkylated metabolites are formed. Some of the compounds exhibited intrinsic clearance values lower than those reported previously for antidepressant imipramine. To sum up, the results of the present study might represent a valuable step in designing and planning future studies with piperazine derivatives.     

Multiple roles of component proteins in bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases: phenol hydroxylase and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase from Pseudomonas sp. OX1

Phenol hydroxylase (PH) and toluene/o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) from Pseudomonas sp. OX1 require three or four protein components to activate dioxygen for the oxidation of aromatic substrates at a carboxylate-bridged diiron center. In this study, we investigated the influence of the hydroxylases, regulatory proteins, and electron-transfer components of these systems on substrate (phenol; NADH) consumption and product (catechol; H(2)O(2)) generation. Single-turnover experiments revealed that only complete systems containing all three or four protein components are capable of oxidizing phenol, a major substrate for both enzymes. Under ideal conditions, the hydroxylated product yield was ～50% of the diiron centers for both systems, suggesting that these enzymes operate by half-sites reactivity mechanisms. Single-turnover studies indicated that the PH and ToMO electron-transfer components exert regulatory effects on substrate oxidation processes taking place at the hydroxylase actives sites, most likely through allostery. Steady state NADH consumption assays showed that the regulatory proteins facilitate the electron-transfer step in the hydrocarbon oxidation cycle in the absence of phenol. Under these conditions, electron consumption is coupled to H(2)O(2) formation in a hydroxylase-dependent manner. Mechanistic implications of these results are discussed.     

Saturation mutagenesis of Bradyrhizobium sp. BTAi1 toluene 4-monooxygenase at alpha-subunit residues proline 101, proline 103, and histidine 214 for regiospecific oxidation of aromatics

A novel toluene monooxygenase (TMO) six-gene cluster from Bradyrhizobium sp. BTAi1 having an overall 35, 36, and 38 % protein similarity with toluene o-xylene monooxygenase (ToMO) of Pseudomonas sp. OX1, toluene 4-monooxygenase (T4MO) of Pseudomonas mendocina KR1, and toluene-para-monooxygenase (TpMO) of Ralstonia pickettii PKO1, respectively, was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli TG1, and its potential activity was investigated for aromatic hydroxylation and trichloroethylene (TCE) degradation. The natural substrate toluene was hydroxylated to p-cresol, indicating that the new toluene monooxygenase (T4MO·BTAi1) acts as a para hydroxylating enzyme, similar to T4MO and TpMO. Some shifts in regiospecific hydroxylations were observed compared to the other wild-type TMOs. For example, wild-type T4MO·BTAi1 formed catechol (88 %) and hydroquinone (12 %) from phenol, whereas all the other wild-type TMOs were reported to form only catechol. Furthermore, it was discovered that TG1 cells expressing wild-type T4MO·BTAi1 mineralized TCE at a rate of 0.67?±?0.10 nmol Cl^?/h/mg protein. Saturation and site directed mutagenesis were used to generate eight variants of T4MO·BTAi1 at alpha-subunit positions P101, P103, and H214: P101T/P103A, P101S, P101N/P103T, P101V, P103T, P101V/P103T, H214G, and H214G/D278N; by testing the substrates phenol, nitrobenzene, and naphthalene, positions P101 and P103 were found to influence the regiospecific oxidation of aromatics. For example, compared to wild type, variant P103T produced four fold more m-nitrophenol from nitrobenzene as well as produced mainly resorcinol (60 %) from phenol whereas wild-type T4MO·BTAi1 did not. Similarly, variants P101T/P103A and P101S synthesized more 2-naphthol and 2.3-fold and 1.6-fold less 1-naphthol from naphthalene, respectively.