Endogenous timing in competitive interactions among relatives

Most evolutionary game theory models solve for equilibrium levels of some behaviour on the restrictive assumptions that players choose their actions simultaneously, and that a player cannot change its action after observing that of its opponent. An alternative framework is provided by sequential or 'Stackelberg' games in which one player commits to a 'first move' and the other has an opportunity to observe this move before choosing its response. Recent interest in the economic literature has focused on Stackelberg games which exhibit 'endogenous timing', i.e. games in which a leader and a follower arise spontaneously as a consequence of each player attempting to maximize its reward. Here, we provide the first demonstration of endogenous timing in an evolutionary context using a simple model of resource competition (the 'tug-of-war' model). We show that whenever two related individuals compete for a share of communal resources, both do best to adopt distinct roles in a sequential game rather than engage in simultaneous competition. Somewhat counterintuitively, the stable solution is for the weaker individual to act as leader and commit to a first move, because this arrangement leads to a lower total effort invested in competition. Endogenous timing offers a new explanation for the spontaneous emergence of leaders and followers in social groups, and highlights the benefits of commitment in social interaction.     

Cortical processing and perceived timing

As of yet, it is unclear how we determine relative perceived timing. One controversial suggestion is that timing perception might be related to when analyses are completed in the cortex of the brain. An alternate proposal suggests that perceived timing is instead related to the point in time at which cortical analyses commence. Accordingly, timing illusions should not occur owing to cortical analyses, but they could occur if there were differential delays between signals reaching cortex. Resolution of this controversy therefore requires that the contributions of cortical processing be isolated from the influence of subcortical activity. Here, we have done this by using binocular disparity changes, which are known to be detected via analyses that originate in cortex. We find that observers require longer stimulus exposures to detect small, relative to larger, disparity changes; observers are slower to react to smaller disparity changes and observers misperceive smaller disparity changes as being perceptually delayed. Interestingly, disparity magnitude influenced perceived timing more dramatically than it did stimulus change detection. Our data therefore suggest that perceived timing is both influenced by cortical processing and is shaped by sensory analyses subsequent to those that are minimally necessary for stimulus change perception.     

阻碍医疗服务质量改善的内生性障碍

医疗行业的内生性障碍决定了改善服务质量的困难,使医疗服务质量的提升水平低于其他行业。通过描述内生性障碍的表现,分析约束条件下的改进措施,制订能够激发组织主动性的政策是取得有价值效果的前提。

     

苦瓜离体培养过程中内源激素含量的变化

针对苦瓜（Momordica charantia）离体培养中外植体易于产生愈伤组织而难以再生不定芽的问题,本文采用酶联免疫吸附法,研究了苦瓜组织培养过程中不同发育阶段各外植体内源激素含量的变化,以探讨不定芽分化与激素水平变化之间的关系,以及苦瓜难以再生不定芽的内在制约因素。结果表明：（1）苦瓜外植体中LAA含量较高,而iPAs含量过低,是苦瓜易于产生愈伤组织而不定芽再生困难的主要原因;（2）不定芽的分化与IAA／iPAs的变化有密切的关系;（3）在离体培养过程中,保持外源细胞分裂素类物质（如ZT）的适当浓度并及时继代,有利于苦瓜不定芽的分化。     

石刁柏胚性细胞诱导过程中的内源激素和多胺含量变化

用高效液相色谱法分析石刁柏愈伤组织胚性细胞诱导过程中不同时期内源激素和多胺含量的结果表明,在胚性细胞诱导过程中,Put和GA3一直呈上升趋势,胚性细胞出现时,IAA、Put和GA3含量都达到最高水平,显示高含量的IAA以及高比例的Pu“（Spd＋Spm）可能有利于胚性细胞的形成。     

内源性甲醛与心血管疾病

内源性甲醛是甲胺由氨基脲敏感性胺氧化酶催化而生成,广泛存在于动物体内多种组织细胞。已经证实,内源性甲醛参与了神经变性病、免疫性疾病以及肿瘤等疾病的发病过程。脂肪细胞、血管内皮细胞和平滑肌细胞富含甲醛生成酶氨基脲敏感性胺氧化酶(semicarbazide-sensitive a-mine oxidase,SSAO)。甲醛具有细胞毒性,易损伤血管内皮并介导多种致病因素诱导的血管损伤过程,在动脉粥样硬化和糖尿病及其并发症的发病中都具有重要作用。     

Endogenous control of spawning in a marine copepod

Daily pattern of egg release has been studied in the marine calanoid copepod, Labidocera aestiva (Wheeler) under cycling light-dark (12L-12D, 12D-12L) conditions, and constant light (24L) or darkness (24D). Under cycling conditions maximum egg release occurred during the dark phase. Rhythmic spawning was also evident under 24D, but not under 24L. The results suggest that the pattern of nocturnal egg release is regulated by an endogenous rhythm entrained by light.     

Individuality in bird migration: routes and timing

The exploration of animal migration has entered a new era with individual-based tracking during multiple years. Here, we investigated repeated migratory journeys of a long-distance migrating bird, the marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus, in order to analyse the variation within and between individuals with respect to routes and timing. We found that there was a stronger individual repeatability in time than in space. Thus, the annual timing of migration varied much less between repeated journeys of the same individual than between different individuals, while there was considerable variation in the routes of the same individual on repeated journeys. The overall contrast in repeatability between time and space was unexpected and may be owing to strong endogenous control of timing, while short-term variation in environmental conditions (weather and habitat) might promote route flexibility. The individual variation in migration routes indicates that the birds navigate mainly by other means than detailed route recapitulation based on landmark recognition.     

杂交水稻及其亲本灌浆过程中内源激素含量的变化

杂交水稻笹优418在灌浆前期ABA含量高于笹锦和C418,后期低于其亲本;整个灌浆期间GA含量高于其亲本;笹优418和C418的IAA含量及其变化趋势都基本相同,前期含量升高,后期含量逐渐降低,笹锦在整个灌浆期间含量逐渐降低;笹优418和笹锦的ZR含量一直比较稳定,C418在灌浆前期含量较高,后期含量较低.     

Endogenous morphine modulates acute thermonociception in mice

The endogenous synthesis of morphine has been clearly demonstrated throughout the phylogenesis of the nervous system of mammals and lower animals. Endogenous morphine, serving as either a neurotransmitter or neurohormone, has been demonstrated in the nervous system of both vertebrates and invertebrates. As one of the effects of exogenous morphine is the modulation of pain perception, we investigated the effects that the depletion of endogenous morphine had on nociceptive transmission. The immunoneutralization of endogenous morphine from brain extracellular spaces was obtained through the intracerebroventricular administration of affinity purified anti-morphine IgG to mice, which then underwent the hot plate test. Endogenous morphine immunoneutralization decreased thermal response latency and attenuated the anti-nociceptive effect of the mu selective agonist DAMGO in hot plate test suggesting that endogenous morphine is involved in pain modulation.     

鹅掌楸属种间杂种优势与内源植物激素的关系

研究了鹅掌楸属( Liriodendron )种间F1杂种(杂种马褂木 L.chinense × L.tulipifera )及其亲本种(中国马褂木 L.chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg.和北美鹅掌楸 L.tulipifera L.)在生长性状和内源GA1/3、IAA和iPA含量上的差异性.结果表明:(1)杂种马褂木高生长性状杂种优势主要是由节间的相对伸长造成的,鹅掌楸属节间伸长区位于顶芽下第1～3节间,其中第1节间伸长量最大、是产生杂种优势的主要节间; (2)中国马褂木、北美鹅掌楸和杂种马褂木内源GA1/3、IAA和iPA含量差异很大,顶芽下第1节间GA1/3和iPA含量杂种家系分别为两个亲本种中含量相对较高的中国马褂木的133.58%～284.17%和396.64%～1 264.28%.杂种马褂木顶芽下第1节间中GA1/3和iPA含量的大量增加可能与高生长性状杂种优势有关; (3)杂种家系3年生时其苗高生长量排序与顶芽下第1节间中GA1/3和iPA含量排序并不一致,不能以第1节间GA1/3和iPA含量的高低作为预测杂种家系间杂种优势大小的依据.     

Pubertal timing and the development of psychopathology in adolescence and beyond

This article is part of a Special Issue “Puberty and Adolescence”.     

鹅掌楸属种间杂种优势与内源植物激素的关系

研究了鹅掌楸属 (Liriodendron)种间F1 杂种 (杂种马褂木L .chinense×L .tulipifera)及其亲本种 (中国马褂木L .chinense (Hemsl.)Sarg .和北美鹅掌楸L .tulipiferaL .)在生长性状和内源GA1 / 3 、IAA和iPA含量上的差异性。结果表明 :(1 )杂种马褂木高生长性状杂种优势主要是由节间的相对伸长造成的 ,鹅掌楸属节间伸长区位于顶芽下第1～ 3节间 ,其中第 1节间伸长量最大、是产生杂种优势的主要节间 ;(2 )中国马褂木、北美鹅掌楸和杂种马褂木内源GA1 / 3 、IAA和iPA含量差异很大 ,顶芽下第 1节间GA1 / 3 和iPA含量杂种家系分别为两个亲本种中含量相对较高的中国马褂木的 1 33.5 8%～ 2 84 .1 7%和 396 .6 4 %～ 1 2 6 4 .2 8%。杂种马褂木顶芽下第 1节间中GA1 / 3 和iPA含量的大量增加可能与高生长性状杂种优势有关 ;(3)杂种家系 3年生时其苗高生长量排序与顶芽下第 1节间中GA1 / 3 和iPA含量排序并不一致 ,不能以第 1节间GA1 / 3和iPA含量的高低作为预测杂种家系间杂种优势大小的依据     

芝麻灌浆特性与灌浆期籽粒中内源激素含量变化研究

在大田栽培条件下,对芝麻品种‘郑芝98N09’的灌浆特性及灌浆期籽粒中内源激素含量变化进行了研究,为芝麻高产优质高效栽培及品质育种提供理论依据。结果表明:(1)第9～17节位芝麻籽粒干物质率最高;下部(8节以下)蒴果在灌浆24d时的蒴果鲜重达最大值(1.596g/蒴),27d时籽粒鲜重达最大值(0.318g/蒴),灌浆最快的时期为灌浆15～33d,干物质积累量达籽粒干重的61.75%;中部(9～20节)蒴果在灌浆27d时的蒴果鲜重达最大值(1.622g/蒴),籽粒鲜重也同期达最大值(0.379g/蒴),灌浆最快的时期为灌浆21～36d,干物质积累量达籽粒干重的74.21%;上部(20节以上)蒴果籽粒干物质积累最快的时期为灌浆9～12d和24～27d两个阶段。(2)中部蒴果GA3含量大于下部和上部蒴果,而ABA和IAA的含量则小于下部和上部蒴果;除GA3/ZR比值外,中部蒴果的ABA/GA3、ABA/ZR、GA3/IAA和ZR/IAA比值都小于下部和上部蒴果。(3)较高的ZR含量和较低的ABA/ZR、ABA/GA3、IAA/GA3和IAA/ZR比值利于胚乳细胞分裂、蒴果发育、籽粒库容建成及籽粒干物质充实。(4)单一激素含量与不同部位蒴果单蒴粒重均达显著或极显著负相关关系,内源激素相互间的关系对下部蒴果粒重增加影响较小,适当提高IAA/ZR、ABA/GA3、IAA/GA3比值,能显著提高中部和上部蒴果的单蒴籽粒干重。     

Reward magnitude and timing in pigeons

We investigated the interaction of motivation and timing by manipulating the expected reward magnitude during a peak procedure. Four pigeons were tested with three different reward magnitudes, operationalized as duration of food access. Each stimulus predicted a different reward magnitude on a 5 s fixed-interval schedule. Trials with different reward magnitudes were randomly intermingled in a session. Most pigeons responded less often and started responding later on peak trials when a smaller reward was expected, but showed no differences in response termination or peak times. Reward magnitude was independently corroborated through unreinforced choice trials, when pigeons chose between the three stimuli presented simultaneously. These results contribute to a growing body of evidence that the expected reward magnitude influences the decision to start anticipatory responding in tasks where the reward becomes available after a fixed interval, but does not alter peak times, nor the decision to stop responding on peak trials.     

Weak low-frequency electromagnetic oscillations in water

Recent observations of low-frequency electromagnetic oscillations in water suggest an inductive structural component. Accordingly, we assume a helical basis enabling us to model water as an LC tuned oscillator. A proposed tetrahedral structure consisting of three water molecules and one hydronium ion is incorporated into the Boerdijk–Coxeter tetrahelix to form long water chains that are shown to have resonance frequencies consistent with observation. This model also serves to explain separately reported claims of ion cyclotron resonance of hydronium ions, in that the tetrahelix provides a built-in path for helical proton-hopping.     

油菜生长发育期间内源激素含量的变化

初花期至盛花期华双3号、华杂4号、恢5900等3个品种花蕾的iPAs含量呈明显上升趋势,而秦油2号则刚好相反(表2)。对双低品种华双3号功能叶的研究表明：苗期至盛花期IAA含量始终最高,其后依次是GA1 3;、iPAs、ABA。功能叶IAA的含量在越冬期处于整个生育期的最低水平,蕾薹期达到高峰,随后下降：GA1 3和iPAs含量随生育进程逐渐升高,并在初花期达到峰值;ABA在苗期及抽薹后一直处于很低水平,但在越冬期达到最高值(图1、2)。蕾薹期IAA主要分布在幼嫩和正在生长的器官中并起重要作用,而在功能叶中相对要少;幼叶GA1 3和iPAs含量最高,功能叶其次,花蕾最低(表1)。角果皮与籽粒的内源激素含量差异极显著,在开花后第39天,籽粒中IAA、GA1 3;、iPAs的含量大大超过角果皮(表3)。结果 表明iPAs在促进籽粒的充实饱满、物质积累转化方面发挥重要作用。     

Asynchrony adaptation reveals neural population code for audio-visual timing

The relative timing of auditory and visual stimuli is a critical cue for determining whether sensory signals relate to a common source and for making inferences about causality. However, the way in which the brain represents temporal relationships remains poorly understood. Recent studies indicate that our perception of multisensory timing is flexible--adaptation to a regular inter-modal delay alters the point at which subsequent stimuli are judged to be simultaneous. Here, we measure the effect of audio-visual asynchrony adaptation on the perception of a wide range of sub-second temporal relationships. We find distinctive patterns of induced biases that are inconsistent with the previous explanations based on changes in perceptual latency. Instead, our results can be well accounted for by a neural population coding model in which: (i) relative audio-visual timing is represented by the distributed activity across a relatively small number of neurons tuned to different delays; (ii) the algorithm for reading out this population code is efficient, but subject to biases owing to under-sampling; and (iii) the effect of adaptation is to modify neuronal response gain. These results suggest that multisensory timing information is represented by a dedicated population code and that shifts in perceived simultaneity following asynchrony adaptation arise from analogous neural processes to well-known perceptual after-effects.