The pigments of Papilio graphium weiskei: Sarpedobilin and ommin responsible for a unique pattern in a butterfly wing membrane

• 1.1. The pigments of the butterfly Papilio graphium weiskei have been separately extracted from the different coloured zones of the wing membrane and analyzed.
• 2.2. Sarpedobilin 3, a neopterobilin, is present in all parts of the wing, at higher concentrations in the green and blue areas, in traces in the pink zones, the total amount being spectrophotometrically determined at 50 μg per individual.
• 3.3. The pigment from the pink and mauve areas cannot be extracted in the usual conditions, but only after in-situ destruction of the membrane under strong acidic conditions. The substance thus obtained shows redox properties. It is identified with ommin on the basis of the already reported similar red pigment obtained in such conditions “Farbstoffe IV” from other insect species.
• 4.4. In conclusion, the unique wing pattern of P. weiskei where green, blue, mauve and pink zones occur, is due to the superposition of two pigments, sarpedobilin (a derivative of pterobilin) and ommin, present within the membrane.

     

Effects of plant structure on butterfly diversity in Mt. Marsabit Forest – northern Kenya

Butterflies, like most forest dependent animals are good ecological indicators of the health of the forests they dwell. For example, butterfly species richness decreases after a forest disturbance and fragmentation but a few species may subsequently invade the forest fragment and boost the species richness. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of human activity and seasonal changes on butterfly species in the affected new habitats. Results showed that both seasonal and habitat changes significantly affect the butterfly abundance (P = 0.0001). Similarly, there was significant correlation between plant diversity and butterfly diversity in wet season (r = 0.854) and dry season (r = 0.855). The significance of these studies as a useful tool for sustainable forest use and conservation is discussed.     

Riparian Butterfly (Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea) Assemblages Associated with Tamarix-Dominated, Native Vegetation–Dominated, and Tamarix Removal Sites along the Arkansas River, Colorado, U.S.A.

We studied butterfly assemblages at eight riparian sites over five years. Sites included Tamarix spp.–dominated riparian areas; sites where mechanical means or biological control agents (Diorhabda elongata deserticola) were used to limit Tamarix; sites that were mixtures of native woody vegetation (e.g., Populus and Salix) and Tamarix; and native vegetation sites. We identified a gradient in butterfly community composition that changed from treated Tamarix sites, through mixed vegetation, to native vegetation sites. Tamarix sites had lower butterfly metric (riparian butterfly index [RBI]) values than did native vegetation sites. The RBI is based on a combination of richness measures and the presence of specific species and groups of butterflies. There was no significant change in the RBI over sampling periods at any sites, including both Tamarix eradication sites. The RBI at sites where Tamarix control took place did not approach restoration goals based on values at unimpacted sites. Positive effects on riparian butterfly assemblages were not linked to any Tamarix control efforts, nor did we detect a decline from initial butterfly metrics at Tamarix sites. Direct ordination provided information on environmental variables, such as amount of nectar and herbaceous plant richness, which may be important in riparian restoration efforts.     

Micropropagation of Aristolochia rotunda L.

An original protocol of micropropagation of Aristolochia rotunda L., an important herb for the survival of an endangered butterfly was developed. The cytokinin 6-benzylaminopurine affected the production of new shoots but had no effect on shoot length. The addition of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) had a negative effect on shoot length. Best results in terms of rooting percentage and root length were achieved with 1.5 μM IBA. The protocol can be employed to enhance the number of A. rotunda in the environment.     

Ortholinea alata n. sp. (Myxosporea: Ortholineidae) in the Northern Butterfly Fish Chaetodon rainfordi

Ortholinea alata n. sp. is described from the northern butterfly fish, Chaetodon rainfordi collected at Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Spherical, disporous trophozoites (10–15 μ) and spores were observed in the lumina of kidney tubules and collecting ducts. Spores are broadly triangular with two short, broad processes that extend dorsoventrad from the posterior end of each of the two spore valves. Valves are bisected by a suture in the plane of the polar capsules. Spores are 12.6 μ (length) × 9.6 μ (width) × 9.9 μ (length), and at the anterior end contain two spherical, divergent polar capsules measuring 4.6 ( 4.1 –5.1) μ. Sporogenesis is similar to that of renal Sphaerospora spp.: the intraluminal trophozoites of O. alata n. sp. correspond to pseudoplasmodia described for Sphaerospora spp. and no large, multinucleate plasmodia are formed. No significant histopathological changes were observed in the kidneys of infected fish.     

北京城市蝴蝶蜜源植物网络特征及重要蜜源植物识别

物种间相互作用网络研究能为物种多样性的保护、城市生态系统稳定性的维持提供指导。基于群落水平的城市蝴蝶蜜源植物互作网络的研究较少,对城市蝴蝶蜜源网络结构缺乏深入认识。研究在国内城市生态系统中构建蝴蝶蜜源网络,并探讨不同类型植物对网络特征的影响。2020年6-9月,在北京26个城市公园中记录访花蝴蝶和蜜源植物物种及互作频次,采用交互多样性（ID）、交互均匀性（IE）、专业化程度（H2''）定量化生态网络结构特征,采用Kruskal-Wallis秩和检验和变差分解分析不同生长型、起源、栽培方式的植物类型对网络结构的影响差异。采用物种的伙伴多样性（PD）和专业化程度（d''）识别重要蜜源植物。研究结果表明：（1）北京城市公园中22种蝴蝶与81种开花植物的交互作用,形成趋于泛化的生态网络结构;（2）不同生长型及不同起源的植物-蝴蝶网络的交互多样性及专业化程度有显著差异,草本及乡土植物对丰富网络中交互多样性和支持专业性更高的蝴蝶物种具重要作用,而植物的栽培方式对蜜源网络结构影响较小;（3）伙伴多样性高且专业化程度高的植物可被视为重要蜜源植物。基于蝴蝶多样性保护的目标,在城市生态系统中,绿色空间应注重构建乡土草本植物群落,优先选择重要蜜源植物。我们的发现印证了蝴蝶-蜜源植物生态网络方法作为联结生态研究和城市绿地实践管理的有效工具,能为城市生态系统中生物多样性保护提供科学策略,具有重要意义。     

Effect of grazing intensity on the interaction between Shijimiaeoides divinus asonis (Matsumura, 1929) and its attendant ants

This study was carried out in the natural herbaceous grassland of Mt. Aso, which had been almost completely grazed, and which is subjected to routine grassland burning every spring (February or March) to conserve Shijimiaeoides divinus asonis (Matsumura, 1929). We clarify that ants protect the larvae of this butterfly and evaluate the effects of grazing intensity on the attendant ant population. The results obtained are summarized as follows: (i) Five species of attendant ant were identified, with the dominant species being Formica japonica (Motschulsky, 1866) and Camponotus japonicus (Mayr, 1866). (ii) The number of attendant ants decreased at night time; however, only one or two ants attended the larva until the following morning. (iii) Ten species of insect excluding ants and three species of spiders that approached the larva were recorded on the larval host‐plant. Formica japonica and C. japonicus fought off most newcomers of other insects including the natural enemies of these butterfly larvae. (iv) The number of ants in this butterfly habitat under regular grazing intensity was significantly higher than during low grazing intensity and non‐grazing periods. (v) A positive correlation was found between the number of attendant ants and the number of butterfly larvae on the host‐plant. We concluded that the interaction between this butterfly and attendant ants is one of facultative mutualism because the attendant ants protect the butterfly larva. Therefore, the numbers of this butterfly species may decrease if the number of attendant ants decreases due to the cessation of pasturage.     

Temporal and spatial variation of mortality in field populations of Danaus plexippus L. and D. chrysippus L. Larvae (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Summary Mortality estimates for the immature stages of two butterfly species, Danaus plexippus and D. chrysippus, were obtained by observing the survival of egg cohorts on different sized patches of food plants (Asclepias spp.), over a one-year period. Losses were variable (0–100%) but usually high (90% and over) throughout the year for both species. Most of the losses in both species occurred in the early stages. The mortality by the third instar accounts for 86–100% of the total losses by instar V. Accordingly both species fall into Price's (1975) type A survivorship category. The size of patches of host plants affected losses. The trend was for increasing losses with increasing patch size. A full life-budget is presented for D. plexippus and implications of the observed mortality levels for competition between the two butterfly species is discussed.     

Conserving a wetland butterfly: quantifying early lifestage survival through seasonal flooding, adult nectar, and habitat preference

Conservation of once thought extinct populations of Lycaena xanthoides in western Oregon will require specific information of how the butterfly interacts with its now rare wetland habitat. Three experiments were conducted to yield information directly applicable to wetland restoration work: (1) to quantify the survival of L. xanthoides eggs laid on inundated plants, (2) to quantify adult nectar preferences, (3) to investigate the role of adult resources and how butterflies assess habitat quality. Survival of eggs laid on inundated plants was nearly seven times lower than the survival of eggs laid on uninundated plants, indicating that eggs laid on plants that are seasonally flooded are a population sink. Adult L. xanthoides preferred an endemic native nectar plant, Grindelia integrifolia × nana, as an adult resource and used it approximately 88% of the time while other butterfly species preferred to nectar on the non-native Mentha pulegium. Adult L. xanthoides had a significantly greater short-term recapture rate in two restored study sites that had a high relative amount of Grindelia integrifolia × nana compared to a degraded site that lacked the preferred nectar source. Based on the results from the three small experiments, restoration of wetlands for L. xanthoides should concentrate plantings of host plant in non-flooded areas and propagate conspicuous patches of the preferred nectar plant.     

The conceptual and practical implications of interpreting diet breadth mechanistically in generalist predatory insects

Seasonal polyphenism in animal colour patterns indicates that temporal variation in selection pressures maintains phenotypic plasticity. Spring generation of the polyphenic European map butterfly Araschnia levana has an orange–black fritillary‐like pattern whilst individuals of the summer generation are black with white bands across the wings. What selects for the colour difference is unknown. Because predation is a major selection pressure for insect coloration, we first tested whether map butterfly coloration could have a warning function (i.e. whether the butterflies are unpalatable to birds). In a following field experiment with butterfly dummies we tested whether the spring form is better protected than the summer form from predators in the spring, and vice versa in the summer. The butterflies were palatable to birds (blue tits Cyanistes caeruleus) and in the field the spring and summer form dummies were attacked equally irrespective of season. Therefore, we found no evidence that the map butterfly is warning‐coloured or that seasonal polyphenism is an adaptation to avian predation. Because insect coloration has multiple functions and map butterfly coloration is linked to morphology, life history and development it is likely that the interplay of several selection pressures explains the evolution of colour polyphenism. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

Ophryocystis elektroscirrha sp. n., a Neogregarine Pathogen of the Monarch Butterfly Danaus plexippus (L.) and the Florida Queen Butterfly D. gilippus berenice Cramer1

SYNOPSIS. Naturally occurring populations of the monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus (L.) and the Florida queen butterfly D. gilippus berenice Cramer were found infected with Ophryocystis elektroscirrha sp. n. This neogregarine pathogen infects the hypodermal tissue, remains in micronclear schizogony until after pupation of the host, and then rapidly completes morphogenesis in the tissue that becomes the scales of the adult butterfly. The adult thus carries the spores externally; no internal infection was detected. The pathogen is unique in the genus Ophryocystis because: other species have all been reported from the Malphigian tubules of Coleoptera; no pseudopodial attachments of schizonts to host tissue were seen; the merozoites were motile; the cystic membrane surrounding the zygote was tenuous, and the sporont developed with no apparent membrane other than the spore wall: and the spore wall appeared amber in transmitted light when morphogenesis was completed.     

Bird attacks on a butterfly with marginal eyespots and the role of prey concealment against the background

Small eyespots on butterflies have long been thought to deflect attacks, and birds are the presumptive drivers selecting for these patterns; however, evidence of this function is still ambiguous. Marginal eyespots typically consist of a UV‐reflective white pupil, surrounded by one black and one yellowish ring. We have recently shown that Cyanistes caeruleus (blue tits) attack such eyespots, but only under low light intensities with accentuated UV levels: the increased salience of the eyespots relative to the rest of the butterfly probably explains this result. Possibly the background against which the butterfly is concealed may deceive birds to make similar errors. We therefore presented speckled wood butterflies decorated with eyespots (or controls without eyespots) to C. caeruleus against two backgrounds: oak and birch bark. Our results show that: (1) eyespots, independent of background, were effective in deflecting attacks; (2) the time elapsed between a bird landing and the attack was interactively dependent on the background and whether the butterfly bore an eyespot; and (3) the speed at which a butterfly was attacked predicted the outcome, with faster birds being more prone to errors than slower birds. This underscores a speed–accuracy trade‐off in the predators, and that background plays a role in the defensive qualities of marginal eyespots. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 290–297.     

Characterization of microsatellite loci in two primary parasitoids of the butterfly Melitaea cinxia,Cotesia melitaearum and Hyposoter horticola (Hymenoptera)

Five polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from Cotesia melitaearum (Wilkinson) and three from Hyposoter horticola (Gravenhost). Both of these parasitic Hymenoptera use the butterfly Melitaea cinxia (Linnaeus) exclusively as their host in the Åland islands in SW Finland. Allelic diversity and heterozygosity were quantified in samples from the Åland islands and other localities around Europe. In addition, microsatellite loci for C. melitaearum were tested in five other Cotesia species: C. acuminata (Reinhard), C. bignellii (Marshall), C. congregata (Say), C. cynthiae (Nixon) and C. koebelei (Riley) from several different host species in Europe and Asia.     

A novel parasitoid and a declining butterfly: cause or coincidence?

1. The small tortoiseshell butterfly (Aglais urticae L.) is considered to be a widespread and abundant generalist species in Northern Europe. However, it declined sharply in the U.K. between 2003 and 2008, coinciding with the arrival and spread of a parasitoid, Sturmia bella Meig. (Diptera: Tachinidae), which specialises on nymphalid butterflies. 2. Whether the decline in A. urticae is associated with the arrival of S. bella was investigated using data from a large‐scale butterfly monitoring scheme, and by collecting larvae to assess parasitoid incidence and parasitism frequency. Similar data were compiled for a related butterfly (Inachis io) which is also parasitised by S. bella but which is not declining. 3. Sturmia bella was recorded as far north as north Lincolnshire (53.53°N). Aglais urticae has declined significantly to the south of this latitude, but not to the north. 4. Sturmia bella was present in 26% and 15% of the larval groups of A. urticae and I. io, respectively, and now kills more individuals of A. urticae (but not I. io) than any native parasitoid. 5. Survival was 25–48% lower in batches of A. urticae larvae where S. bella was present, indicating that S. bella causes host mortality in addition to that caused by native parasitoids. 6. Our results suggest that S. bella may be playing a role in the recent decline of A. urticae. However, further research is needed to establish its effects relative to other potential drivers of trends in the abundance of this butterfly.     

Identification of butterfly based on their shapes when viewed from different angles using an artificial neural network

Identification of butterfly species is essential because they are directly associated with crop plants used for human and animal consumption. However, the widely used reliable methods for butterfly identification are not efficient due to complicated butterfly shapes. We previously developed a novel shape recognition method that uses branch length similarity (BLS) entropy, which is a simple branching network consisting of a single node and branches. The method has been successfully applied to recognize battle tanks and characterize human faces with different emotions. In the present study, we used the BLS entropy profile (an assemble of BLS entropies) as an input feature in a feed-forward back-propagation artificial neural network to identify butterfly species according to their shapes when viewed from different angles (for vertically adjustable angle, θ = ± 10°, ± 20°, …, ± 60° and for horizontally adjustable angle, φ = ± 10°, ± 20°, …, ± 60°). In the field, butterfly images are generally captured obliquely by camera due to butterfly alignment and viewer positioning, which generates various shapes for a given specimen. To generate different shapes of a butterfly when viewed from different angles, we projected the shapes captured from top-view to a plane rotated through angles θ and φ. Projected shapes with differing θ and φ values were used as training data for the neural network and other shapes were used as test data. Experimental results showed that our method successfully identified various butterfly shapes. In addition, we briefly discuss extension of the method to identify more complicated images of different butterfly species.     

Rapid assessment of butterfly diversity in a montane landscape

We present the results of a rapid assessment of butterfly diversity in the 754 ha Beaver Meadows study area in Rocky Mountain National Park, Larimer County, Colorado. We measured butterfly species richness and relative abundance as part of a landscape-scale investigation of diversity patterns involving several groups of organisms. A stratified random sampling design was used to include replication in both rare and common vegetation types. We recorded 49 butterfly species from the twenty-four 0.1 ha plots that were sampled four times during June, July, and August 1996. Butterfly species richness, diversity, and uniqueness were highest in quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michaux) groves and wet meadows, which occupy only a small proportion of the studied landscape. This result supports the suggestion that aspen areas represent hotspots of biological diversity in this montane landscape. Patterns of butterfly species richness were positively correlated with total vascular plant species richness (r = 0.69; P < 0.001), and native plant species richness (r = 0.64; P < 0.001). However, exotic plant species richness (r = 0.70; P < 0.001) and the cover of exotic plant species (r = 0.70; P < 0.001) were the best predictors of butterfly species richness.     

Predation capacity and prey preference of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysoperla carnea</Emphasis> on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pieris brassicae</Emphasis>

The predation capacity and prey preference of larvae of Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) on eggs or larvae of Pieris brassicae (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in the absence and presence of cabbage aphids as an alternative prey were evaluated in laboratory experiments at 25°C. Both instars preyed upon butterfly eggs and larvae as well as on cabbage aphids with the third instar being the most voracious. The lacewings had a strong preference for caterpillars to butterfly eggs. In the presence of the aphids the predation on P. brassicae eggs or larvae was either completely abandoned or reduced by about 70%, respectively, by second instar lacewings and either reduced by about 80% or maintained, respectively, by third instar lacewings. Both instars thus had a clear preference for aphids compared to eggs of P. brassicae. However, second instar lacewings preferred aphids to caterpillars whereas the opposite was the case for third instar lacewings. The results indicate that 3rd instar C. carnea has a potential as biocontrol agent against P. brassicae.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> endosymbiont infection in two Indian butterflies and female-biased sex ratio in the Red Pierrot, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Talicada nyseus</Emphasis>

The maternally inherited obligate bacteria Wolbachia is known to infect various lepidopteran insects. However, so far only a few butterfly species harbouring this bacterium have been thoroughly studied. The current study aims to identify the infection status of these bacteria in some of the commonly found butterfly species in India. A total of nine butterfly species belonging to four different families were screened using PCR with Wolbachia-specific wsp and ftsZ primers. The presence of the Wolbachia super group ‘B’ in the butterflies Red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) and Blue Mormon, Papilio polymnestor Cramer (Papilionidae), is documented for the first time in India. The study also gives an account on the lifetime fecundity and female-biased sex ratio in T. nyseus, suggesting a putative role for Wolbachia in the observed female-biased sex ratio distortion.     

Cover Caption

The Glanville fritillary butterfly, Melitaea cinxia, is widely distributed between approximately 35°N and 60°N in Eurasia, from the Atlantic coast to the Baikal Lake region. In China, M. cinxia is distributed in Xinjiang. The geographic populations have to face greatly different ambient temperatures. The biochemical adaptation strategy of M. cinxia is revealed in Chinese population for dealing with high temperature (see pages 758-770). Photo provided by Rongjiang Wang.     

Flavonoids in the leaves of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oxalis corniculata </Emphasis>and sequestration of the flavonoids in the wing scales of the pale grass blue butterfly, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudozizeeria </Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">maha</Emphasis>

Three C-glycosylflavones in the leaves of Oxalis corniculata, the host plant of the lycaenid butterfly pale grass blue (Pseudozizeeria maha), were identified as 6-C-glucosylluteolin (isoorientin), 6-C-glucosylapigenin (isovitexin) and isovitexin 7-methyl ether (swertisin). Comparative spectral and HPLC analyses between the leaf extract of the host plants and the wings of P. maha showed selective uptake of the host-plant flavonoid isovitexin to the wings of the butterfly.