Adaptions in the life cycle ofDermacentor variabilis (Say) andIxodes dammini (Spielman,Clifford, Piesman,and Corwin) marginal populations (Acari: Ixodidae)

Both theDermacentor variabilis andIxodes dammini adult diapause seasons are followed by a breeding period. At the edge of the ticks' range, where diapause and breeding occur under adverse climatic conditions, the species still conserves its fixed response for the onset of diapause. As a result, most of the following breeding effort is wasted; the population can only be maintained by an aberrant breeding period during the normal diapause season.When the diapause and breeding periods are suitable for the climate at the edge of the ticks' range, the rate of immature development versus the temperature regime can result in the appearance of the immature stages out of phase with the timing for the optimal life cycle in the marginal climate. The ticks are limited to minor adjustments of their development rates but, if this is all that is required for an optimum life cycle, this response can preadapt the species to the foreign climate.     

Year‐round movements of sympatric Fork‐tailed (Oceanodroma furcata) and Leach's (O. leucorhoa) storm‐petrels

Long‐distance movements are characteristic of most seabirds in the order Procellariiformes. However, little is known about the migration and foraging ranges of many of the smaller species in this order, especially storm‐petrels (Hydrobatidae). We used Global Location Sensors to document the year‐round movements of sympatrically breeding Fork‐tailed Storm‐Petrels (Oceanodroma furcata) and Leach's Storm‐Petrels (O. leucorhoa) from the Gillam Islands located northwest of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. In 2016, breeding Fork‐tailed (N = 5) and Leach's (N = 2) storm‐petrels traveled maximum distances of ~1550–1600 km from their colony to a region that has a wide shelf with major canyons creating a highly productive foraging area. After the breeding season, Fork‐tailed Storm‐Petrels (N = 2) traveled to similar areas west of the Gillam Islands, a maximum distance of ~3600 km from the breeding colony, and remained in the North Pacific Ocean and north of the Subarctic Boundary for an average of 5.4 mo. Post‐breeding Leach's Storm‐Petrels (N = 2) moved south to the Eastern Tropical Pacific, west of central Mexico, Ecuador, and northern Peru, an estimated maximum distance of ~6700 km from their breeding colony, and remained there for an average of 7.2 mo. Carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) stable isotope analyses of feathers revealed niche separation between Fork‐tailed (N = 21) and Leach's (N = 53) storm‐petrels. The wide range of δ¹⁵N values in the feathers of Leach's Storm‐Petrels (N = 53) suggests that they foraged at a variety of trophic levels during the non‐breeding season. Our results demonstrate that storm‐petrels have large core foraging areas and occupy vast oceanic areas in the Pacific during their annual cycle. However, given the coarse precision of Global Location Sensors, additional study is needed to identify the specific areas used by each species during both breeding and non‐breeding periods.     

Reproduction in the crowned lemur (Lemur coronatus) in captivity

Four pairs of captive crowned lemurs (Lemur coronatus) were studied during their annual breeding season in order to obtain baseline data on their reproductive biology for comparison with other Lemur species and to enhance their captive breeding success. Vaginal smears, testicular measurements, and records of the Duke University Primate Center provided the presented data. During a single breeding season, females cycled an average of three times, with an average cycle length of 34 days. Cycles were detected between November and March. Vaginal estrus and copulations were limited to one day per cycle. After 125 days of gestation females gave birth to one or two young. Both sexes attained sexual maturity at an age of about 20 months. Mean male testis size peaked in late December; at the same time, three of the females experienced their first estrus. Based on all available data, there was a significant positive correlation between cycle length and gestation length in the genus Lemur.     

Mating System Variation in Woodhouse's Toad (Bufo woodhousii)

Sexual selection and mating-system variation was studied in two disjunct populations of Woodhouse's toad (Bufo woodhousii) with dissimilar breeding-period durations. In spite of the differences in breeding-period duration, nightly operational sex ratios were roughly equivalent and strongly male biased in both populations, ranging from 0 to 0.5 in the population with a prolonged breeding period, and from 0 to 0.2 in the explosively breeding form. Although operational sex ratios were similar, some males mated with up to three females in the population with an extended breeding period, whereas none of the males mated polygynously in the population with a short breeding season. Two alternative reproductive tactics, satellite and active-searching behavior, were only exhibited by males under high densities in the population with a short breeding period. In the population with an extended breeding period, male mating success was positively related to call rate, but independent of size or number of nights of participation in chorus activity. Although operational sex ratios were equally low, mating was random by size, number of nights of participation in chorus activity, and call rate for males in the explosively breeding population.     

The breeding systems of six species of Arabis (Brassicaceae)

The ability of organisms to produce genetic variation for any trait, including resistance to pathogens, is partially determined by breeding system. I used enzyme electrophoresis, crossing experiments, and cytology to assess the breeding systems of cooccurring Arabis species that are often infected by rust fungi. The Arabis holboellii surveyed were pseudogamous apomicts with relatively high population-level ailozyme variation, and variable chromosome numbers (2n, 3n, 4n). Arabisgunnisoniana (3n) and Arabis lignifera (2n) were also pseudogamous but showed no allozyme variation either at the population level, or within progeny arrays. Arabis hirsuta may be an autogamous polyploid or it may be a pseudogamous apomict; more work is needed to clarify the breeding system of this species. Arabis drummondii and Arabis crandallii were sexual, but exhibited little genetic variability due to a predominance of self-fertilization. The use of several techniques was necessary to evaluate these breeding systems. Insect exclusion indicated when pollen was necessary for seed set, but could not differentiate between sexual reproduction and pseudogamy. Electrophoresis yielded information on the degree of selling (as evidenced by homozygosity) and apomixis (fixed heterozygosity), but could not differentiate between autogamy and apomixis in polyploids without ailozyme variation. Pseudogamy was confirmed when crosses between dissimilar genotypes yielded only the maternal genotype, and cytologically by irregular meiosis.     

Wintering destinations of Monterey Hermit Thrushes (Catharus guttatus slevini)

Across their broad North American distribution, Hermit Thrushes (Catharus guttatus) exhibit extensive yet subtle intraspecific variation in morphology and diverse migration patterns, causing considerable debate regarding their systematics and an incomplete understanding of their migratory geography. To better understand the fall migration and wintering destinations of Hermit Thrushes in coastal California, we deployed geolocators on individuals of the subspecies C. g. slevini breeding in the Santa Cruz Mountains of the Coast Ranges. In 2014, we captured 20 Hermit Thrushes in Big Basin Redwoods State Park using mist‐nets and attached geolocators. In 2015, we retrieved tags from 13 birds. Tagged Hermit Thrushes left the breeding area between 1 and 19 September 2014 and arrived in wintering areas in Baja California Sur and northwestern mainland Mexico between 24 September and 13 October 2014. The average distance between breeding and wintering areas was 1617 ± 217 (SD) km, and the average duration of fall migration was 22.5 ± 6.4 (SD) days. Our results suggest that Hermit Thrushes breeding in Big Basin winter in a highly concentrated region of western Mexico including Baja California Sur and southwestern Sonora or northwestern‐most Sinaloa; we found no evidence that Big Basin birds overwintered in the southwestern United States. Our results also confirm the existence of chain migration for Hermit Thrushes in California. Because C. g. slevini exhibits a limited distribution in both breeding and wintering areas and their morphology and song suggest adaptation to their habitat, we recommend exploration of fine‐scale genetic structure of coastal California’s Hermit Thrushes to determine the extent of evolutionary divergence in this subspecies.     

Orientation behaviour of toads (Bufo bufo) displaced from the breeding site

Summary The sensory basis and spatial range of orientation to the breeding site were studied in the toadBufo bufo, during two breeding seasons. Toads were displaced passively from their breeding pond and fitted with a tracking device to record the path of migration in individuals. The directional choice and the straightness of trails after release were used to quantify the effect of experimental treatments. In both years, control (untreated): toads headed to the breeding site with the same precision at all release sites. The initial orientation of toads blinded by opaque tape over their eyes. did not differ from controls, but the return paths were not as direct. The directional choice of anosmic toads was apparently random, however, individuals followed a straight path in a chosen direction. Anosmic toads also blinded were completely disoriented, moving in cycloid trails. Bar magnets glued to the head caused an increase in dispersion of toads. However, in some individual releases a directional bias without increased dispersion was observed. Sky conditions (clear or overcast) did not influence the initial orientation or the dispersion of toads. Nevertheless, the breeding site component was significantly correlated with wind direction in relation to the breeding site. Wind blowing from the breeding site improved the initial orientation, whereas wind from the opposite direction reduced the breeding site component. The spatial range for the ability to relocate the breeding pond after displacement exceeded 3 km, but the time taken to select the correct direction increased with the displacement distance. The results indicate that after displacement the initial orientation ofB. bufo is based mainly on olfactory and magnetic cues, with visual control of straightness.     

The breeding system ofEmblingia (Emblingiaceae)

Emblingia is a short lived fire weed with a highly autogamous breeding system.     

The functional and numerical response of Typhlodromips swirskii (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to the factitious prey Suidasia medanensis (Acari: Suidasidae) in the context of a breeding sachet

The whitefly and thrips predator Typhlodromips swirskii (Athias-Henriot) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) can be reared on the factitious astigmatid mite Suidasia medanensis (Oudemans) (Acari: Suidasiidae). The predator–prey relationship allows the system to be incorporated into a breeding sachet which releases predators into a crop over several weeks ensuring predator presence on arrival of the target pests and increased predator numerical response on the crop through immigration from the breeding sachet. This study investigated whether the prey preference and functional and numerical response of T. swirskii to different development stages of S. medanensis can provide understanding of the predator–prey interactions sustaining such a breeding sachet. T. swirskii elicited a strong preference to egg stages of S. medanensis, exhibited a Type II functional response and increased oviposition rate with increasing prey density. The relevance of these attributes to a balanced breeding sachet is discussed.     

Flower and fruit structure of the endangered species Petagnaea gussonei (Sprengel) Rauschert (Saniculoideae,Apiaceae) and implications for its reproductive biology

Petagnaea gussonei (Apiaceae) is an endangered species endemic to the Nebrodi mountains (north-eastern Sicily). Although an increasing number of studies have been performed on this species, its reproductive biology remains poorly understood. The aim of this study was to investigate in detail the structure of the flower and the fruit of Petagnaea, and the possible implications for its breeding system and seed dispersal mechanism. Results from fieldwork, light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy suggest (1) the presence of protandrous hermaphrodite flowers; (2) geitonogamy, autogamy, and allogamy as breeding system mechanisms of P. gussonei, even if asexual reproduction is preferred by the plant; and (3) epizoochory and hydrochory as possible modalities of fruit dispersal.     

Social organisation and interspecific interactions in two sympatric species of Ranidella (Anura)

Summary The socio-spatial organisation of two sympatric species of anurans was investigated by analyses of the spatial and temporal structure of breeding assemblages. Ranidella signifera breeds earlier in the year than its congener, R. parinsignifera, though there is an overlap of 6 to 8 weeks. Males of both species show high affinities for discrete spatial locations (preferred calling stations). These stations are regularly-spaced, and temporally-stable. Satellite behaviour occurs, though most satellites are past or future residential males. There appears to be a spatial-energetic limit to the number of calling residents of both species that a pond can support. There is no differentiation of calling sites between the two species, and the males of R. parinsignifera appear to displace their congeners from the preferred stations located on the land/water interface of ponds. The breeding season of R. signifera in sympatry is abbreviated relative to nearby (20 km) allopatric localities. The breeding seasons of conspecific males and females are well-synchronised, though the ratio of males to females is high early in the breeding season.     

Seed set in Sorghum stipoideum,and not fire,determines the timing of breeding by Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae)

Seeds of native grasses are an important food source for granivorous finches throughout the tropical savannas of northern Australia. The iconic Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae), a threatened species endemic to these savanna grasslands, relies almost exclusively on the grass seeds of annual Sorghum spp. when breeding, and appears to time breeding with the availability of these seeds. Fire is common throughout the savanna grasslands of northern Australia and has the potential to alter Sorghum spp. seed germination and plant reproductive phenology which in turn could alter the Gouldian finch breeding phenology window. This study examines if the temporal relationship between breeding by Gouldian finches in the north‐east Kimberley region of Australia relates to fire and Sorghum stipoideum seed phenology. The availability of S. stipoideum seed was monitored at Gouldian finch breeding sites in association with local fire history and Gouldian finch breeding data. The effect of experimental fire (heat and smoke) on S. stipoideum seed dormancy and germination was also investigated. We found that the first heavy rainfalls preceded germination of S. stipoideum in November/December. Synchronous seed set by S. stipoideum plants the following March/April coincided with the start and duration of the Gouldian finch breeding season. The timing of dry season fires had no relationship with seed dormancy or the phenology of seed germination and seed set. Nor did the effects of smoke or heat affect seed dormancy and germination. These findings support the importance of the seed phenology of annual grass species, such as S. stipoideum, to breeding Gouldian finches, and also suggest that the occurrence of fire at a breeding site in the previous year does not alter the S. stipoideum seed or finch breeding window. The implications of these results for threatened Gouldian finch ecology and management are discussed in relation to previously published fire impacts on S. stipoideum seed nutrition and finch breeding site selection.     

Breeding location choice in salmon: causes (habitat, competition, body size, energy stores) and consequences (life span, energy stores)

Breeding location choice provides a mechanism by which individuals can directly influence their reproductive success. Location choice should therefore reflect individual condition, habitat features, and the intensity of competition; with these factors then influencing reproductive success. To test whether such patterns were detectable in the wild, we tagged 705 sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) in a natural population, and monitored them from when they started breeding until they died. We evaluated the role of individual condition (size, secondary sexual traits, energy stores) in the acquisition of breeding locations that differed in the intensity of competition (female density, sex ratio) and habitat features (water depth, water velocity). We then evaluated the influence of breeding location on reproductive life span and energy stores. At a coarse level (20‐m stream sections), females consistently settled in certain locations, and these locations sustained high densities and held larger females. At a fine scale (0.5‐m breeding sites), (1) larger fish occupied deeper water (males, r²=0.072; females, r²=0.199), (2) higher levels of competition reduced reproductive life span for males (r²=0.139) but not females, and (3) fish with shorter reproductive life spans died with more energy remaining in their muscle tissue (males, r²=0.414; females, r²=0.440). These patterns were nested within a tendency for late breeding fish to have shorter reproductive life spans. Energy stores and secondary sexual traits did not influence breeding location choice, and larger fish did not acquire locations of higher intrinsic quality (i.e., those sections settled first and sustaining higher competition). Our study provides evidence that some aspects of individual condition influence breeding location choice, which then influences components of reproductive success.     

A whole‐genome SNP array (RICE6K) for genomic breeding in rice

The advances in genotyping technology provide an opportunity to use genomic tools in crop breeding. As compared to field selections performed in conventional breeding programmes, genomics‐based genotype screen can potentially reduce number of breeding cycles and more precisely integrate target genes for particular traits into an ideal genetic background. We developed a whole‐genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array, RICE6K, based on Infinium technology, using representative SNPs selected from more than four million SNPs identified from resequencing data of more than 500 rice landraces. RICE6K contains 5102 SNP and insertion–deletion (InDel) markers, about 4500 of which were of high quality in the tested rice lines producing highly repeatable results. Forty‐five functional markers that are located inside 28 characterized genes of important traits can be detected using RICE6K. The SNP markers are evenly distributed on the 12 chromosomes of rice with the average density of 12 SNPs per 1 Mb and can provide information for polymorphisms between indica and japonica subspecies as well as varieties within indica and japonica groups. Application tests of RICE6K showed that the array is suitable for rice germplasm fingerprinting, genotyping bulked segregating pools, seed authenticity check and genetic background selection. These results suggest that RICE6K provides an efficient and reliable genotyping tool for rice genomic breeding.     

Ectoparasites of northern fulmars Fulmarus glacialis (Procellariiformes: Procellariidae) from the Canadian Arctic

We studied the prevalence and intensity of infestation of ectoparasites on northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis L.) from a breeding colony in Arctic Canada in June–August 2003. No fleas or ticks were found on any fulmars, but three species of chewing lice (Phthiraptera) were recorded: Ischnocera: Perineus nigrolimbatus (Giebel 1874), Ischnocera: Saemundssonia occidentalis (Kellogg 1896), and Amblycera: Ancistrona vagelli (Fabricius 1787). Non-breeding birds had a higher prevalence of lice than breeding birds, and prevalence varied markedly among louse species. Our study is an important baseline for the occurrence of ectoparasites on northern fulmars in the high Arctic, a region undergoing extensive environmental change due to global warming, and an area where parasites are expected to extend ranges or increase in prevalence under changing annual temperature regimes.     

Effects of parental number and duration of the breeding period on the effective population size and genetic diversity of a captive population of the endangered Tokyo bitterling Tanakia tanago (Teleostei: Cyprinidae)

The maintenance of genetic diversity is one of the chief concerns in the captive breeding of endangered species. Using microsatellite and mtDNA markers, we examined the effects of two key variables (parental number and duration of breeding period) on effective population size (N_e) and genetic diversity of offspring in an experimental breeding program for the endangered Tokyo bitterling, Tanakia tanago. Average heterozygosity and number of alleles of offspring estimated from microsatellite data increased with parental number in a breeding aquarium, and exhibited higher values for a long breeding period treatment (9 weeks) compared with a short breeding period (3 weeks). Haplotype diversity in mtDNA of offspring decreased with the reduction in parental number, and this tendency was greater for the short breeding period treatment. Genetic estimates of N_e obtained with two single‐sample estimation methods were consistently higher for the long breeding period treatment with the same number of parental fish. Average N_e/N ratios were ranged from 0.5 to 1.4, and were high especially in the long breeding period with small and medium parental number treatments. Our results suggest that the spawning intervals of females and alternative mating behaviors of males influence the effective size and genetic diversity of offspring in bitterling. To maintain the genetic diversity of captive T. tanago, we recommend that captive breeding programs should be conducted for a sufficiently long period with an optimal level of parental density, as well as using an adequate number of parents. Zoo Biol 31:656‐668, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) and largetooth sash (Pristis perotteti) in Lake Bayano,a tropical man-made impoundment in Panama

Synopsis The Río Bayano in eastern Panama is one of many tropical rivers in which bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas) and largetooth sawfish (Pristis perotteti) have been known to occur. Since both species can osmoregulate in fresh water throughout life, theoretically, both could survive in landlocked situations for many years.P. perotteti reproduces in fresh water, butC. leucas ordinarily does not, so only the former would appear to have the potential for establishing a breeding stock in such a landlocked freshwater body.The damming of the Rio Bayano and the creation of a large impoundment in 1976 provides a test of the ability of members of both species trapped there to survive and to establish breeding stocks. In 1980 and 1981 three mature femaleC. leucas were found dead in Lake Bayano and three sub-adult femaleP. perotteti were taken by trammel net. These events confirm the ability of both to survive in fresh water for long periods, but the establishment of breeding stocks appears doubtful and the question may not be answered for many years.     

Unique multiple paternity in the endangered big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) in an ex situ population in South China

Understanding the mating system and reproductive strategies of an endangered species is critical to the success of captive breeding. The big‐headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) is one of the most threatened turtle species in the world. Captive breeding and reintroduction are necessary to re‐establish wild populations of P. megacephalum in some of its historical ranges in China, where the original populations have been extirpated. However, the captive breeding of P. megacephalum is very difficult and this may be due to its mysterious reproductive strategies and special behavior (e.g., aggressive temperament and territoriality). In this study, we achieved successful captive breeding of P. megacephalum by creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions and then investigated its mating system using microsatellite makers. A total of 16 clutches containing 79 eggs of P. megacephalum were collected, and 52 were hatched successfully over two breeding seasons. Of the 15 effective clutches, 6 clutches (40%) exhibited multiple paternity. There was no significant correlation between clutch size and multiple paternity, and no significant difference in hatching success between multiple‐sired and single‐sired clutches. However, there was significant correlation between male body size and the number of offspring, with higher‐ranked males contributing to more clutches. Our results provide the first evidence of multiple paternity and male hierarchy in P. megacephalum. These findings suggest that multiple paternity and male hierarchy should be considered in captive breeding programs for P. megacephalum, and creating a habitat that mimics natural conditions is an effctive way to achieve successful captive breeding and investigate the mating systems of this species.     

Polymix breeding with paternity analysis in Populus: a test for differential reproductive success (DRS) among pollen donors

Polymix breeding with paternity analysis (PMX/WPA) has been proposed as an alternative to traditional full-sib breeding and testing schemes. To fully capture the benefits of PMX/WPA, differential reproductive success (DRS) of pollen parents used in the polymix must be modest. DRS was evaluated in an operational test of PMX/WPA for a hybrid poplar breeding program. A 16-parent pollen polymix (Populus nigra L.) was used to pollinate seven clones of Populus deltoides (Bartr. ex. Marshall) under greenhouse breeding conditions. Progeny were grown out briefly and randomly sampled (357) prior to out-planting in field trials. Twenty-eight simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were evaluated and 15 were selected for genetic characterization in small populations of three Populus spp (P. nigra, P. deltoides, and P. balsamifera spp trichocarpa Torr. & Gray). Seven loci were ultimately selected for paternity analysis of progeny. The average exclusion probability of the seven loci in P. nigra was 0.604; combined, the theoretical exclusion probability was 0.9999. However, only 95% of sampled progeny were unambiguously assigned a single paternal parent. Missing data likely accounted for most of the ambiguity. DRS was statistically significant though not prohibitive for practical utility of PMX/WPA as a breeding system. Of the 112 potential crosses in this study, 92 were represented. Eight of the 16 pollen parents contributed 83% of the progeny. Good pollen vigor, as measured by germination percent, did not ensure paternal success, but poor vigor was associated with lack of paternal success. PMX/WPA appears to be logistically and economically attractive for hybrid poplar breeding and testing.     

Floral bract function, flowering process and breeding systems ofSarcandra andChloranthus (Chloranthaceae)

Structure and function of floral bracts, anthesis and breeding systems were investigated in greenhouse plants ofSarcandra chloranthoides, Sarcandra glabra, andChloranthus spicatus (Chloranthaceae). In early developmental stages the floral bract replaces the lacking perianth as a protective structure by enclosing the floral organs completely in a pocket-like structure, which is formed by the u-shaped attachment zone of the floral bract to the spike axis. The floral bract has a tip with an epithem tissue, from which traces of secretion seem to be released by the stomata. All species investigated have protogynous and longlasting flowers. The female phase begins five to seven days earlier than the male phase. It continues during the male phase and for some time thereafter. The male phase lasts between one day (Chloranthus spicatus) and seven days (Sarcandra chloranthoides). This is the first study on breeding systems of Chloranthaceae. They are of special interest in such a basal family of the angiosperms. Although the investigatedSarcandra andChloranthus species have similar flowers with entomophilous features, surprisingly their breeding systems are diverse:Sarcandra glabra is self-compatible,S. chloranthoides is agamospermous andChloranthus spicatus is self-incompatible.