Modeling soil CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> emissions from ecosystems

We present a new soil respiration model, describe a formal model testing procedure, and compare our model with five alternative models using an extensive data set of observed soil respiration. Gas flux data from rangeland soils that included a large number of measurements at low temperatures were used to model soil CO₂ emissions as a function of soil temperature and water content. Our arctangent temperature function predicts that Q₁₀ values vary inversely with temperature and that CO₂ fluxes are significant below 0 °C. Independent data representing a broad range of ecosystems and temperature values were used for model testing. The effects of plant phenology, differences in substrate availability among sites, and water limitation were accounted for so that the temperature equations could be fairly evaluated. Four of the six tested models did equally well at simulating the observed soil CO₂ respiration rates. However, the arctangent variable Q₁₀ model agreed closely with observed Q₁₀ values over a wide range of temperatures (r² = 0.94) and was superior to published variable Q₁₀ equations using the Akaike information criterion (AIC). The arctangent temperature equation explained 16–85% of the observed intra-site variability in CO₂ flux rates. Including a water stress factor yielded a stronger correlation than temperature alone only in the dryland soils. The observed change in Q₁₀ with increasing temperature was the same for data sets that included only heterotrophic respiration and data sets that included both heterotrophic and autotrophic respiration.     

Annual variation in soil respiration and its components in a coppice oak forest in Central Italy

In order to investigate the annual variation of soil respiration and its components in relation to seasonal changes in soil temperature and soil moisture in a Mediterranean mixed oak forest ecosystem, we set up a series of experimental treatments in May 1999 where litter (no litter), roots (no roots, by trenching) or both were excluded from plots of 4 m². Subsequently, we measured soil respiration, soil temperature and soil moisture in each plot over a year after the forest was coppiced. The treatments did not significantly affect soil temperature or soil moisture measured over 0–10 cm depth. Soil respiration varied markedly during the year with high rates in spring and autumn and low rates in summer, coinciding with summer drought, and in winter, with the lowest temperatures. Very high respiration rates, however, were observed during the summer immediately after rainfall events. The mean annual rate of soil respiration was 2.9 µ mol m^?2 s^?1, ranging from 1.35 to 7.03 µmol m^?2 s^?1. Soil respiration was highly correlated with temperature during winter and during spring and autumn whenever volumetric soil water content was above 20%. Below this threshold value, there was no correlation between soil respiration and soil temperature, but soil moisture was a good predictor of soil respiration. A simple empirical model that predicted soil respiration during the year, using both soil temperature and soil moisture accounted for more than 91% of the observed annual variation in soil respiration. All the components of soil respiration followed a similar seasonal trend and were affected by summer drought. The Q₁₀ value for soil respiration was 2.32, which is in agreement with other studies in forest ecosystems. However, we found a Q₁₀ value for root respiration of 2.20, which is lower than recent values reported for forest sites. The fact that the seasonal variation in root growth with temperature in Mediterranean ecosystems differs from that in temperate regions may explain this difference. In temperate regions, increases in size of root populations during the growing season, coinciding with high temperatures, may yield higher apparent Q₁₀ values than in Mediterranean regions where root growth is suppressed by summer drought. The decomposition of organic matter and belowground litter were the major components of soil respiration, accounting for almost 55% of the total soil respiration flux. This proportion is higher than has been reported for mature boreal and temperate forest and is probably the result of a short‐term C loss following recent logging at the site. The relationship proposed for soil respiration with soil temperature and soil moisture is useful for understanding and predicting potential changes in Mediterranean forest ecosystems in response to forest management and climate change.     

Changes in seasonal soil respiration with pasture conversion to forest in Atlantic Canada

This study compares approximately weekly soil respiration across two forest–pasture pairs with similar soil, topography and climate to document how conversion of pasture to forest alters net soil CO₂ respiration. Over the 2.5 year period of the study, we found that soil respiration was reduced by an average of 41% with conversion of pasture to forest on an annual basis. Both pastured sites showed similar annual soil respiration rates. Comparisons of the paired forests, one coniferous and the other broadleaf, only showed a significant difference over one annual cycle. Enhanced soil respiration in pastures may be the result of either enhanced root respiration and/or microbial respiration. Differences in pasture–forest soil respiration were primarily observed during the July through September summer period at all sites, suggesting that this is the critical period for observing and documenting differences. Evaluation of the soil microclimatic controls on soil respiration suggest that soil temperature exerts a major control on this process, and that examining these relationships on a seasonal rather than weekly basis provides the strongest relationships in poorly drained soils. Consistently greater pastured site Q ₁₀s (2.52;2.42) than forested site Q ₁₀s (2.27; 2.17) were observed, with paired-site differences of 0.25.     

CO2 flux from soil in pastures and forests in southwestern Amazonia

Stocks of carbon in Amazonian forest biomass and soils have received considerable research attention because of their potential as sources and sinks of atmospheric CO₂. Fluxes of CO₂ from soil to the atmosphere, on the other hand, have not been addressed comprehensively in regard to temporal and spatial variations and to land cover change, and have been measured directly only in a few locations in Amazonia. Considerable variation exists across the Amazon Basin in soil properties, climate, and management practices in forests and cattle pastures that might affect soil CO₂ fluxes. Here we report soil CO₂ fluxes from an area of rapid deforestation in the southwestern Amazonian state of Acre. Specifically we addressed (1) the seasonal variation of soil CO₂ fluxes, soil moisture, and soil temperature; (2) the effects of land cover (pastures, mature, and secondary forests) on these fluxes; (3) annual estimates of soil respiration; and (4) the relative contributions of grass‐derived and forest‐derived C as indicated by δ¹³CO₂. Fluxes were greatest during the wet season and declined during the dry season in all land covers. Soil respiration was significantly correlated with soil water‐filled pore space but not correlated with temperature. Annual fluxes were higher in pastures compared with mature and secondary forests, and some of the pastures also had higher soil C stocks. The δ¹³C of CO₂ respired in pasture soils showed that high respiration rates in pastures were derived almost entirely from grass root respiration and decomposition of grass residues. These results indicate that the pastures are very productive and that the larger flux of C cycling through pasture soils compared with forest soils is probably due to greater allocation of C belowground. Secondary forests had soil respiration rates similar to mature forests, and there was no correlation between soil respiration and either forest age or forest biomass. Hence, belowground allocation of C does not appear to be directly related to the stature of vegetation in this region. Variation in seasonal and annual rates of soil respiration of these forests and pastures is more indicative of flux of C through the soil rather than major net changes in ecosystem C stocks.     

Interpreting diel hysteresis between soil respiration and temperature

Increasing use of automated soil respiration chambers in recent years has demonstrated complex diel relationships between soil respiration and temperature that are not apparent from less frequent measurements. Soil surface flux is often lagged from soil temperature by several hours, which results in semielliptical hysteresis loops when surface flux is plotted as a function of soil temperature. Both biological and physical explanations have been suggested for hysteresis patterns, and there is currently no consensus on their causes or how such data should be analyzed to interpret the sensitivity of respiration to temperature. We used a one‐dimensional soil CO₂ and heat transport model based on physical first principles to demonstrate a theoretical basis for lags between surface flux and soil temperatures. Using numerical simulations, we demonstrated that diel phase lags between surface flux and soil temperature can result from heat and CO₂ transport processes alone. While factors other than temperature that vary on a diel basis, such as carbon substrate supply and atmospheric CO₂ concentration, can additionally alter lag times and hysteresis patterns to varying degrees, physical transport processes alone are sufficient to create hysteresis. Therefore, the existence of hysteresis does not necessarily indicate soil respiration is influenced by photosynthetic carbon supply. We also demonstrated how lags can cause errors in Q₁₀ values calculated from regressions of surface flux and soil temperature measured at a single depth. Furthermore, synchronizing surface flux and soil temperature to account for transport‐related lags generally does not improve Q₁₀ estimation. In order to calculate the sensitivity of soil respiration to temperature, we suggest using approaches that account for the gradients in temperature and production existing within the soil. We conclude that consideration of heat and CO₂ transport processes is a requirement to correctly interpret diel soil respiration patterns.     

Site and temporal variation of soil respiration in European beech, Norway spruce, and Scots pine forests

Global warming and changes in rainfall amount and distribution may affect soil respiration as a major carbon flux between the biosphere and the atmosphere. The objectives of this study were to investigate the site to site and interannual variation in soil respiration of six temperate forest sites. Soil respiration was measured using closed chambers over 2 years under mature beech, spruce and pine stands at both Solling and Unterlüß, Germany, which have distinct climates and soils. Cumulative annual CO₂ fluxes varied from 4.9 to 5.4 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1 at Solling with silty soils and from 4.0 to 5.9 Mg C ha^?1 yr^?1 at Unterlüß with sandy soils. With one exception soil respiration rates were not significantly different among the six forest sites (site to site variation) and between the years within the same forest site (interannual variation). Only the respiration rate in the spruce stand at Unterlüß was significant lower than the beech stand at Unterlüß in both years. Soil respiration rates of the sandy sites at Unterlüß were limited by soil moisture during the rather dry and warm summer 1999 while soil respiration at the silty Solling site tended to increase. We found a threshold of ?80 kPa at 10 cm depth below which soil respiration decreased with increasing drought. Subsequent wetting of sandy soils revealed high CO₂ effluxes in the stands at Unterlüß. However, dry periods were infrequent, and our results suggest that temporal variation in soil moisture generally had little effect on annual soil respiration rates. Soil temperature at 5 cm and 10 cm depth explained 83% of the temporal variation in soil respiration using the Arrhenius function. The correlations were weaker using temperature at 0 cm (r² = 0.63) and 2.5 cm depth (r² = 0.81). Mean Q₁₀ values for the range from 5 to 15 °C increased asymptotically with soil depth from 1.87 at 0 cm to 3.46 at 10 cm depth, indicating a large uncertainty in the prediction of the temperature dependency of soil respiration. Comparing the fitted Arrhenius curves for same tree species from Solling and Unterlüß revealed higher soil respiration rates for the stands at Solling than in the respective stands at Unterlüß at the same temperature. A significant positive correlation across all sites between predicted soil respiration rates at 10 °C and total phosphorus content and C‐to‐N ratio of the upper mineral soil indicate a possible effect of nutrients on soil respiration.     

Temperature-independent diel variation in soil respiration observed from a temperate deciduous forest

The response of soil respiration (R_s) to temperature depends largely on the temporal and spatial scales of interest and how other environmental factors interact with this response. They are often represented by empirical exponential equations in many ecosystem analyses because of the difficulties in separating covarying environmental responses and in observing below ground processes. The objective of this study was to quantify a soil temperature‐independent component in R_s by examining the diel variation of an R_s time series measured in a temperate deciduous forest located at Oak Ridge, TN, USA between March and December 2003. By fitting 2 hourly, continuous automatic chamber measurements of CO₂ efflux at the soil surface to a Q₁₀ function to obtain the temperature‐dependent respiration (R_t) and plotting the diel cycles of R_t, R_s, and their difference (R_i), we found that an obvious temperature‐independent component exists in R_s during the growing season. The diel cycle of this component has a distinct day/night pattern and agrees well with diel variations in photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and air temperature. Elevated canopy CO₂ concentration resulted in similar patterns in the diel cycle of the temperature‐independent component but with different daily average rates in different stages of growing season. We speculate that photosynthesis of the stand is one of the main contributors to this temperature‐independent respiration component although more experiments are needed to draw a firm conclusion. We also found that despite its relatively small magnitude compared with the temperature‐dependent component, the diel variation in the temperature‐independent component can lead to significantly different estimates of the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration in the study forest. As a result, the common practice of using fitted temperature‐dependent function from night‐time measurements to extrapolate soil respiration during the daytime may underestimate daytime soil respiration.     

降雨对旱作春玉米农田土壤呼吸动态的影响

土壤呼吸是调控全球碳平衡和气候变化的关键过程之一,降雨作为重要的扰动因子,在不同区域和不同环境条件下,对土壤呼吸具有复杂的影响.研究降雨对农田土壤呼吸及其分量的影响,对准确预测未来气候变化下陆地生态系统碳平衡具有重要意义.对黄土高原东部典型春玉米农田生态系统生长季内3次降雨前后土壤呼吸及其分量进行了原位连续观测,结果表明:在土壤湿润的条件下,降雨对春玉米农田土壤呼吸及其分量具有明显的抑制作用,在土壤湿度大于27％后土壤呼吸及其分量随土壤湿度上升呈明显下降,且对温度的敏感性降低.土壤呼吸及其分量在降雨前后的变化受土壤温度和土壤湿度的共同影响.降雨量、降雨历时和雨前土壤含水量决定了土壤呼吸及其分量对降雨响应的程度和时长.土壤呼吸及其分量对土壤温度的敏感性各不相同,微生物呼吸对温度的敏感性最高,Q10为5.14;其次是土壤呼吸,Q10为3.86;根呼吸的温度敏感性相对最低,Q10为3.24.由于土壤呼吸分量对温度和湿度的敏感性不同,降雨后根呼吸的比例有所升高.     

Large seasonal changes in Q10 of soil respiration in a beech forest

We analyzed one year of continuous soil respiration measurements to assess variations in the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration at a Danish beech forest. A single temperature function derived from all measurements across the year (Q₁₀ = 4.2) was adequate for estimating the total annual soil respiration and its seasonal evolution. However, Q₁₀'s derived from weekly datasets ranged between three in summer (at a mean soil temperature of 14 °C) and 23 in winter (at 2 °C), indicating that the annual temperature function underestimated the synoptic variations in soil respiration during winter. These results highlight that empirical models should be parameterized at a time resolution similar to that required by the output of the model. If the objective of the model is to simulate the total annual soil respiration rate, annual parameterization suffices. If however, soil respiration needs to be simulated over time periods from days to weeks, as is the case when soil respiration is compared to total ecosystem respiration during synoptic weather patterns, more short‐term parameterization is required. Despite the higher wintertime Q₁₀'s, the absolute response of soil respiration to temperature was smaller in winter than in summer. This is mainly because in absolute numbers, the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration depends not only on Q₁₀, but also on the rate of soil respiration, which is highly reduced in winter. Nonetheless, the Q₁₀ of soil respiration in winter was larger than can be explained by the decreasing respiration rate only. Because the seasonal changes in Q₁₀ were negatively correlated with temperature and positively correlated with soil moisture, they could also be related to changing temperature and/or soil moisture conditions.     

中国东部亚热带森林土壤呼吸的时空格局

土壤呼吸是陆地碳循环中仅次于全球总初级生产力的第二大碳通量途径, 揭示土壤呼吸的时空格局对整个陆地碳循环具有重要意义。该文在中国东部亚热带季风气候区, 按纬度梯度由南向北选取深圳梧桐山、杨东山十二度水保护区、宁波天童山3个区域作为研究对象, 于2009年8月至2010年10月测定了不同季节各个区域内代表性植被类型的土壤呼吸速率及地下5 cm处土壤温度, 旨在初步了解中国东部亚热带森林地区土壤呼吸的时空格局及其影响因素。结果显示: 3个区域的土壤呼吸速率均存在显著的季节变化, 其变幅为2.64-6.24 μmol CO₂·m ^-2·s^-1, 总体趋势和地下5 cm处土壤温度的季节变化一致, 均为夏季最高冬季最低; 土壤温度的变化可以解释不同样地土壤呼吸季节变化的58.3%-90.2%; 各样地全年的Q₁₀值从1.56到3.27; 通过离样地最近的气象站点的日平均气温与试验样地地下5 cm处土壤温度之间的线性正相关关系推算出日土壤温度的变化, 利用土壤呼吸速率和地下5 cm处土壤温度之间的指数关系, 估算出各样地全年的土壤CO₂通量为1 077-2 058 g C·m^-2·a^-1, 在全球所有生态系统类型中处于较高水平。     

Environmental effects on CO2 efflux from riparian tundra in the northern foothills of the Brooks Range,Alaska, USA

Summary Carbon dioxide efflux and soil microenvironmental factors were measured diurnally in Carex aquatilus-and Eriophorum angustifolium-dominated riparian tundra communities to determine the relative importance of soil environmental factors controlling ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange with the atmosphere. Measurements were made weekly between 18 June and 24 July 1990. Diurnal patterns in carbon dioxide efflux were best explained by changes in soil temperature, while seasonal changes in efflux were correlated with changes in depth to water table, depth to frozen soil and soil moisture. Carbon dioxide efflux rates were lowest early in the growing season when high water tables and low soil temperatures limited microbial and root activity. Individual rainfall events that raised the water table were found to strongly reduce carbon dioxide efflux. As the growing season progressed, rainfall was low and depth to water table and soil temperatures increased. In response, carbon dioxide efflux increased strongly, attaining rates late in the season of approximately 10 g CO₂ m^–2 day^–1. These rates are as high as maxima recorded for other arctic sites. A mathematical model is developed which demonstrates that soil temperature and depth to water table may be used as efficient predictors of ecosystem CO₂ efflux in this habitat. In parallel with the field measurements of CO₂ efflux, microbial respiration was studied in the laboratory as a function of temperature and water content. Estimates of microbial respiration per square meter under field conditions were made by adjusting for potential respiring soil volume as water table changed and using measured soil temperatures. The results indicate that the effect of these factors on microbial respiration may explain a large part of the diurnal and seasonal variation observed in CO₂ efflux. As in coastal tundra sites, environmental changes that alter water table depth in riparian tundra communities will have large effects on ecosystem CO₂ efflux and carbon balance.     

武夷山不同林龄甜槠林土壤呼吸特征及影响因素

为揭示中亚热带常绿阔叶林群落优势种一甜槠天然林不同林龄林下土壤呼吸(Soil respiration,RS)差异及影响因素,采用LI-8100开路式土壤碳通量系统对武夷山自然保护区不同林龄(18、36、54、72 a)天然甜槠林进行了1年的野外原位测定。结果表明:(1)不同林龄甜槠林RS季节动态呈现明显的单峰趋势,林龄对冬季RS影响并不显著(P>0.05),秋季18 a甜槠林RS与其他3种林龄差异显著(P<0.05),林龄对土壤含水率的季节变化没有显著影响(P>0.05);(2)不同林龄甜槠林5 cm深土壤温度与RS拟合R2明显高于土壤含水率与RS拟合R2,随着林龄增大,RS温度敏感性指数Q10值呈上升趋势,依次为1.551、1.589、1.640、1.664,且54、72 a甜槠林RS温度敏感性指数Q10值显著高于18、36 a(P<0.05);(3)土壤含水率与5 cm深土壤温度共同解释了RS变异的86%—90.3%;0—60 cm土层根系生物量与5 cm深土壤温度共同解释了RS变异的88.3%—91.8%,由此可见,生物因子与非生物因子双因素拟合可以更好地解释不同林龄RS差异。在对未来森林植被土壤呼吸及碳汇功能进行研究时,应在考虑林龄及季节差异的基础上,加强对生物因子的测定。     

施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响

油茶是中国南方重要的木本食用油料树种,研究施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响,对于估算中国南方典型种植园林温室气体排放及其对气候变化的响应具有重要意义。设置对照(CK)、施肥(OF)、断根(CK-T)和断根施肥(OF-T)4个处理,采用静态箱-气相色谱法,通过多年观测,分析探讨施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸及其温度敏感性的影响。结果表明:(1)施肥对油茶园土壤呼吸和异养呼吸无显著影响。研究期间,各处理(OF、CK、OF-T、CK-T)土壤CO_2通量依次为(77.91±2.59)、(73.71±0.97)、(66.82±1.02)mg C m~(-2)h~(-1)和(66.84±3.94)mg C m~(-2)h~(-1);(2)各处理土壤呼吸温度敏感性(Q_(10))表现为OF-T(1.96±0.01)CK-T(1.79±0.03)OF(1.77±0.01)CK(1.75±0.03),其中,OF-T处理下Q_(10)显著高于其他3个处理,即施肥显著增加了断根处理土壤呼吸Q_(10);(3)施肥显著增加了土壤表层NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N含量,Q_(10)与土壤表层NH_4~+-N和NO_3~--N含量表现出显著的正相关关系。     

Diffusive fractionation complicates isotopic partitioning of autotrophic and heterotrophic sources of soil respiration

Carbon isotope ratios (δ¹³C) of heterotrophic and rhizospheric sources of soil respiration under deciduous trees were evaluated over two growing seasons. Fluxes and δ¹³C of soil respiratory CO₂ on trenched and untrenched plots were calculated from closed chambers, profiles of soil CO₂ mole fraction and δ¹³C and continuous open chambers. δ¹³C of respired CO₂ and bulk carbon were measured from excised leaves and roots and sieved soil cores. Large diel variations (>5‰) in δ¹³C of soil respiration were observed when diel flux variability was large relative to average daily fluxes, independent of trenching. Soil gas transport modelling supported the conclusion that diel surface flux δ¹³C variation was driven by non‐steady state gas transport effects. Active roots were associated with high summertime soil respiration rates and around 1‰ enrichment in the daily average δ¹³C of the soil surface CO₂ flux. Seasonal δ¹³C variability of about 4‰ (most enriched in summer) was observed on all plots and attributed to the heterotrophic CO₂ source.     

高寒矮嵩草草甸冬季CO2释放特征

冬季碳排放在高寒草地年内碳平衡中占有重要位置。为探讨高寒草地冬季碳排放特征及温度敏感性,于2003-2005年在中国科学院海北高寒草甸生态系统研究站,利用密闭箱-气相色谱法连续观测了高寒矮嵩草草甸2个冬季的生态系统、土壤呼吸通量特征。结果表明:1)高寒矮嵩草草甸冬季生态系统呼吸、土壤呼吸均具有明显的日变化和季节变化规律,温度是其主要的控制因子,能够解释44%以上的呼吸速率变异。2)冬季生态系统呼吸与土壤呼吸速率在统计上没有显著差异,土壤呼吸占生态系统呼吸的比例高达85%以上。3)2003-2004年冬季生态系统呼吸、土壤呼吸的Q₁₀值分别为1.53,1.38;2004-2005年冬季生态系统呼吸与土壤呼吸的Q₁₀值为1.86,1.68,2个冬季生态系统呼吸的Q₁₀值均高于土壤呼吸。4)未发现高寒矮嵩草草甸冷冬年份的Q₁₀值高于暖冬年份以及冬季的Q₁₀值高于生长季。     

Estimates of CO2 uptake and release among European forests based on eddy covariance data

The net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of forests represents the balance of gross primary productivity (GPP) and respiration (R). Methods to estimate these two components from eddy covariance flux measurements are usually based on a functional relationship between respiration and temperature that is calibrated for night‐time (respiration) fluxes and subsequently extrapolated using daytime temperature measurements. However, respiration fluxes originate from different parts of the ecosystem, each of which experiences its own course of temperature. Moreover, if the temperature–respiration function is fitted to combined data from different stages of biological development or seasons, a spurious temperature effect may be included that will lead to overestimation of the direct effect of temperature and therefore to overestimates of daytime respiration. We used the EUROFLUX eddy covariance data set for 15 European forests and pooled data per site, month and for conditions of low and sufficient soil moisture, respectively. We found that using air temperature (measured above the canopy) rather than soil temperature (measured 5 cm below the surface) yielded the most reliable and consistent exponential (Q₁₀) temperature–respiration relationship. A fundamental difference in air temperature‐based Q₁₀ values for different sites, times of year or soil moisture conditions could not be established; all were in the range 1.6–2.5. However, base respiration (R₀, i.e. respiration rate scaled to 0°C) did vary significantly among sites and over the course of the year, with increased base respiration rates during the growing season. We used the overall mean Q₁₀ of 2.0 to estimate annual GPP and R. Testing suggested that the uncertainty in total GPP and R associated with the method of separation was generally well within 15%. For the sites investigated, we found a positive relationship between GPP and R, indicating that there is a latitudinal trend in NEE because the absolute decrease in GPP towards the pole is greater than in R.     

Contrasting soil respiration in young and old-growth ponderosa pine forests

Three years of fully automated and manual measurements of soil CO₂ efflux, soil moisture and temperature were used to explore the diel, seasonal and inter‐annual patterns of soil efflux in an old‐growth (250‐year‐old, O site) and recently regenerating (14‐year‐old, Y site) ponderosa pine forest in central Oregon. The data were used in conjunction with empirical models to determine which variables could be used to predict soil efflux in forests of contrasting ages and disturbance histories. Both stands experienced similar meteorological conditions with moderately cold wet winters and hot dry summers. Soil CO₂ efflux at both sites showed large inter‐annual variability that could be attributed to soil moisture availability in the deeper soil horizons (O site) and the quantity of summer rainfall (Y site). Seasonal patterns of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site showed a strong positive correlation between diel mean soil CO₂ efflux and soil temperature at 64 cm depth whereas diel mean soil efflux at the Y site declined before maximum soil temperature occurred during summer drought. The use of diel mean soil temperature and soil water potential inferred from predawn foliage water potential measurements could account for 80% of the variance of diel mean soil efflux across 3 years at both sites, however, the functional shape of the soil water potential constraint was site‐specific. Based on the similarity of the decomposition rates of litter and fine roots between sites, but greater productivity and amount of fine litter detritus available for decomposition at the O site, we would expect higher rates of soil CO₂ efflux at the O site. However, annual rates were only higher at the O site in one of the 3 years (597 ± 45 vs. 427 ± 80 g C m^?2). Seasonal patterns of soil efflux at both sites showed influences of soil water limitations that were also reflected in patterns of canopy stomatal conductance, suggesting strong linkages between above and below ground processes.     

Carbon pools and fluxes along an environmental gradient in northern Arizona

Carbon pools and fluxes were quantified along an environmentalgradient in northern Arizona. Data are presented on vegetation, litter, andsoil C pools and soil CO₂ fluxesfrom ecosystems ranging from shrub-steppe through woodlands to coniferousforest and the ecotones in between. Carbon pool sizes and fluxes in thesesemiarid ecosystems vary with temperature and precipitation and are stronglyinfluenced by canopy cover. Ecosystem respiration is approximately 50percent greater in the more mesic, forest environment than in the dryshrub-steppe environment. Soil respiration rates within a site varyseasonally with temperature but appear to be constrained by low soilmoisture during dry summer months, when approximately 75% of totalannual soil respiration occurs. Total annual amount of CO₂ respired across all sites ispositively correlated with annual precipitation and negatively correlatedwith temperature. Results suggest that changes in the amount and periodicityof precipitation will have a greater effect on C pools and fluxes than willchanges in temperature in the semiarid Southwestern United States.     

Carbon Dioxide Dynamics and Controls in a Deep-water Wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

To initially characterize the dynamics and environmental controls of CO₂, ecosystem CO₂ fluxes were measured for different vegetation zones in a deep-water wetland on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau during the growing season of 2002. Four zones of vegetation along a gradient from shallow to deep water were dominated, respectively by the emergent species Carex allivescens V. Krez., Scirpus distigmaticus L., Hippuris vulgaris L., and the submerged species Potamogeton pectinatus L. Gross primary production (GPP), ecosystem respiration (Re), and net ecosystem production (NEP) were markedly different among the vegetation zones, with lower Re and GPP in deeper water. NEP was highest in the Scirpus-dominated zone with moderate water depth, but lowest in the Potamogeton-zone that occupied approximately 75% of the total wetland area. Diurnal variation in CO₂ flux was highly correlated with variation in light intensity and soil temperature. The relationship between CO₂ flux and these environmental variables varied among the vegetation zones. Seasonal CO₂ fluxes, including GPP, Re, and NEP, were strongly correlated with aboveground biomass, which was in turn determined by water depth. In the early growing season, temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀) for Re varied from 6.0 to 8.9 depending on vegetation zone. Q₁₀ decreased in the late growing season. Estimated NEP for the whole deep-water wetland over the growing season was 24 g C m⁻². Our results suggest that water depth is the major environmental control of seasonal variation in CO₂ flux, whereas photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) controls diurnal dynamics.     

No overall stimulation of soil respiration under mature deciduous forest trees after 7 years of CO2 enrichment

The anthropogenic rise in atmospheric CO₂ is expected to impact carbon (C) fluxes not only at ecosystem level but also at the global scale by altering C cycle processes in soils. At the Swiss Canopy Crane (SCC), we examined how 7 years of free air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) affected soil CO₂ dynamics in a ca. 100‐year‐old mixed deciduous forest. The use of ¹³C‐depleted CO₂ for canopy enrichment allowed us to trace the flow of recently fixed C. In the 7th year of growth at ～550 ppm CO₂, soil respiratory CO₂ consisted of 39% labelled C. During the growing season, soil air CO₂ concentration was significantly enhanced under CO₂‐exposed trees. However, elevated CO₂ failed to stimulate cumulative soil respiration (R_s) over the growing season. We found periodic reductions as well as increases in instantaneous rates of R_s in response to elevated CO₂, depending on soil temperature and soil volumetric water content (VWC; significant three‐way interaction). During wet periods, soil water savings under CO₂‐enriched trees led to excessive VWC (>45%) that suppressed R_s. Elevated CO₂ stimulated R_s only when VWC was ≤40% and concurrent soil temperature was high (>15 °C). Seasonal Q₁₀ estimates of R_s were significantly lower under elevated (Q₁₀=3.30) compared with ambient CO₂ (Q₁₀=3.97). However, this effect disappeared when three consecutive sampling dates of extremely high VWC were disregarded. This suggests that elevated CO₂ affected Q₁₀ mainly indirectly through changes in VWC. Fine root respiration did not differ significantly between treatments but soil microbial biomass (C_mic) increased by 14% under elevated CO₂ (marginally significant). Our findings do not indicate enhanced soil C emissions in such stands under future atmospheric CO₂. It remains to be shown whether C losses via leaching of dissolved organic or inorganic C (DOC, DIC) help to balance the C budget in this forest.