The Influence of Snowmobile Trails on Coyote Movements during Winter in High-Elevation Landscapes

Competition between sympatric carnivores has long been of interest to ecologists. Increased understanding of these interactions can be useful for conservation planning. Increased snowmobile traffic on public lands and in habitats used by Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) remains controversial due to the concern of coyote (Canis latrans) use of snowmobile trails and potential competition with lynx. Determining the variables influencing coyote use of snowmobile trails has been a priority for managers attempting to conserve lynx and their critical habitat. During 2 winters in northwest Wyoming, we backtracked coyotes for 265 km to determine how varying snow characteristics influenced coyote movements; 278 km of random backtracking was conducted simultaneously for comparison. Despite deep snow (>1 m deep), radio-collared coyotes persisted at high elevations (>2,500 m) year-round. All coyotes used snowmobile trails for some portion of their travel. Coyotes used snowmobile trails for 35% of their travel distance (random: 13%) for a mean distance of 149 m (random: 59 m). Coyote use of snowmobile trails increased as snow depth and penetrability off trails increased. Essentially, snow characteristics were most influential on how much time coyotes spent on snowmobile trails. In the early months of winter, snow depth was low, yet the snow column remained dry and the coyotes traveled off trails. As winter progressed and snow depth increased and snow penetrability increased, coyotes spent more travel distance on snowmobile trails. As spring approached, the snow depth remained high but penetrability decreased, hence coyotes traveled less on snowmobile trails because the snow column off trail was more supportive. Additionally, coyotes traveled closer to snowmobile trails than randomly expected and selected shallower snow when traveling off trails. Coyotes also preferred using snowmobile trails to access ungulate kills. Snow compaction from winter recreation influenced coyote movements within an area containing lynx and designated lynx habitat.     

Dingo Howls: The Content and Efficacy of a Long‐Range Vocal Signal

Signals are shaped through selective pressures impacting their information content (i.e. ‘what’ is conveyed) and their efficacy (i.e. ‘how’ is it conveyed). In the case of long‐range communication, a signal's structure should both convey information and allow for detection and discrimination despite the effects of environmental variability during propagation. Canid howls are an ideal example of a long‐range communication signal, although research has mostly focused on the relationships between howls’ acoustic characteristics and their potential information content in wolves, Canis lupus spp., and coyotes, Canis latrans. In this study, we quantified these relationships in another canid, the dingo, Canis familiaris dingo, to determine how their howls compare to that of other wild canids. We found that dingoes’ howls are individually distinctive and may convey gender cues. Playback experiments indicate that dingoes can perform class‐level recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals on the basis of vocalizations alone. These results mirror findings for other wild canids such as wolves and coyotes. Lastly, propagation experiments demonstrate that this signal's structure can permit long‐distance detectability and discriminability. We discuss our results in relation to the putative functions of canid howls and propose avenues for future research.     

BIOACOUSTIC PUBLICATIONS, 1987

The use of amplitudes to identify individuals has historically been ignored by bioacoustic researchers due to problems of attenuation. However, recent studies have shown that amplitudes encode identity in a variety of mammal species. Previously, individuality has been demonstrated in both fundamental frequency (F₀) and amplitude changes of captive Eastern wolf (Canis lupus lycaon) howls with 100% accuracy where attenuation of amplitude due to distance was controlled in a captive environment. In this study, we aim to determine whether both fundamental frequency and amplitude data collected from vocalizations of wild wolves recorded over unknown distances, in variable conditions and with different recording equipment, can still encode identity. We used a bespoke code, developed in Matlab, to extract simple scalar variables from 67 high-quality solo howls from 10 wild individuals and 112 chorus howls from another 109 individuals, including lower quality howls with wind or water noise. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out on the fundamental frequency and normalized amplitude of harmonic 1, yielding histogram-derived PCA values on which discriminant function analysis was applied. An accuracy of 100% was achieved when assigning solo howls to individuals, and for the chorus howls a best accuracy of 97.4% was achieved. We suggest that individual recognition using our new extraction and analysis methods involving fundamental frequency and amplitudes together can identify wild wolves with high accuracy, and that this method should be applied to surveys of individuals in capture–mark–recapture and presence–absence studies of canid species.     

Space use and social ecology of coyotes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis latrans</Emphasis>) in a high-elevation ecosystem: relative stability in a changing environment

Coyote (Canis latrans) spatial and social ecology are variable, but have been little studied in high-elevation environments. In these temperate ecosystems, large ungulates are prevalent and coyote pack size may be large in order for them to scavenge and defend ungulate carcasses from conspecifics in neighboring packs. We initiated a study to understand the spatial and social ecology of coyotes on the Valles Caldera National Preserve, a high-elevation (2450–3400 m) protected area in northern New Mexico. Our objectives were to (1) describe the home range size and habitat use of coyotes in the preserve, (2) describe coyote movements within and outside of packs, and (3) to evaluate the relationship between coyote social cohesion and the amount of elk (Cervus elaphus) in the coyote diet. We acquired global positioning system and telemetry locations from 33 coyotes from August 2005 to July 2009. We classified 23 coyotes (70 % of individuals) as residents (i.e., territorial) during at least part of the study and ten coyotes (30 %) as transients. Overall mean home range size of resident packs was 10.6 ± 2.2 (SD) km². Home range size varied between packs, but did not vary by season or year. Coyotes used dry and wet meadow habitats as expected based on availability; coyotes used riparian habitat more than expected, and forests less than expected. Social cohesion did not vary among biological seasons. Alpha coyotes were more socially cohesive with each other than with other pack members, and a transient exhibited temporal–spatial avoidance of pack members while inside the pack’s territory followed by integration into the pack. Contrary to expectations, we found no relationship between coyote social cohesion and the proportion of elk in coyote diets. We concluded that coyote space use and sociality on the preserve were relatively stable year-round despite changes in biological needs, snow depth, and utilization of variously sized prey.     

The Effect of Snowmobile Trails on Coyote Movements Within Lynx Home Ranges

Abstract: Coyotes (Canis latrans) and Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) are sympatric throughout much of the lynx's southern range. Researchers and managers have suggested that the presence of compacted snowmobile trails may allow coyotes to access lynx habitat from which they were previously excluded by deep, unconsolidated snow. This could then allow coyotes to more effectively compete with lynx for snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), the lynx's primary prey. We investigated how coyotes interacted with compacted snowmobile trails by conducting carnivore track surveys and by snow tracking adult coyotes (4 M, 8 F) in areas of western Montana, USA, with both documented lynx presence and recreational snowmobile use. Coyotes remained in lynx habitat having deep snow throughout the winter months. They used compacted snowmobile trails for 7.69% of their travel distance and traveled on them for a median distance of 124 m. Coyotes used compacted forest roads (5.66% of total travel) and uncompacted forest roads (4.62% of total travel) similarly. Coyotes did not travel closer to compacted snowmobile trails than random expectation (coyote x̄ distance from compacted trails = 368 m, random expectation = 339 m) and the distance they traveled from these trails did not vary with daily, monthly, or yearly changes in snow supportiveness or depth. However, they strongly selected for naturally shallower and more supportive snow surfaces when traveling off compacted snowmobile trails. Coyotes were primarily scavengers in winter (snowshoe hare kills composed 3% of coyote feed sites) and did not forage closer to compacted snowmobile trails than random expectation. The overall influence of snowmobile trails on coyote movements and foraging success during winter appeared to be minimal on our study area. The results of this study will allow land managers to better assess the effects of snow-compacting activities on coyotes and lynx.     

Does interference competition with wolves limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes?

Interference competition with wolves Canis lupus is hypothesized to limit the distribution and abundance of coyotes Canis latrans, and the extirpation of wolves is often invoked to explain the expansion in coyote range throughout much of North America. We used spatial, seasonal and temporal heterogeneity in wolf distribution and abundance to test the hypothesis that interference competition with wolves limits the distribution and abundance of coyotes. From August 2001 to August 2004, we gathered data on cause-specific mortality and survival rates of coyotes captured at wolf-free and wolf-abundant sites in Grand Teton National Park (GTNP), Wyoming, USA, to determine whether mortality due to wolves is sufficient to reduce coyote densities. We examined whether spatial segregation limits the local distribution of coyotes by evaluating home-range overlap between resident coyotes and wolves, and by contrasting dispersal rates of transient coyotes captured in wolf-free and wolf-abundant areas. Finally, we analysed data on population densities of both species at three study areas across the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) to determine whether an inverse relationship exists between coyote and wolf densities. Although coyotes were the numerically dominant predator, across the GYE, densities varied spatially and temporally in accordance with wolf abundance. Mean coyote densities were 33% lower at wolf-abundant sites in GTNP, and densities declined 39% in Yellowstone National Park following wolf reintroduction. A strong negative relationship between coyote and wolf densities (beta = -3.988, P < 0.005, r(2) = 0.54, n = 16), both within and across study sites, supports the hypothesis that competition with wolves limits coyote populations. Overall mortality of coyotes resulting from wolf predation was low, but wolves were responsible for 56% of transient coyote deaths (n = 5). In addition, dispersal rates of transient coyotes captured at wolf-abundant sites were 117% higher than for transients captured in wolf-free areas. Our results support the hypothesis that coyote abundance is limited by competition with wolves, and suggest that differential effects on survival and dispersal rates of transient coyotes are important mechanisms by which wolves reduce coyote densities.     

Evaluating the effect of predators on white-tailed deer: Movement and diet of coyotes

Coyotes (Canis latrans) may affect adult and neonate white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) survival and have been implicated as a contributor to the decline of deer populations. Additionally, coyote diet composition is influenced by prey availability, season, and region. Because coyote movement and diet vary by region, local data are important to understand coyote population dynamics and their impact on prey species. In southeast Minnesota, we investigated the effect of coyotes on white-tailed deer populations by documenting movement rates, distances moved, and habitats searched by coyotes during fawning and nonfawning periods. Additionally, we determined survival, cause-specific mortality, and seasonal diet composition of coyotes. From 2001 to 2003, we captured and radiocollared 30 coyotes. Per-hour rate of movement averaged 0.87 km and was greater (P = 0.046) during the fawning (1.07 km) than the nonfawning period (0.80 km); areas searched were similar (P = 0.175) between seasons. Coyote habitat use differed during both seasons; habitats were not used in proportion to their availability (P < 0.001). Croplands were used more (P < 0.001) than their proportional availability during both seasons. Use of grasslands was greater during the fawning period (P = 0.030), whereas use of cropland was greater in the nonfawning period (P < 0.001). We collected 66 fecal samples during the nonfawning period; coyote diets were primarily composed of Microtus spp. (65.2%), and consumption of deer was 9.1%. During the study, 19 coyotes died; annual survival rate range was 0.33–0.41, which was low compared with other studies. Consumption of deer was low and coyotes searched open areas (i.e., cropland) more than fawning areas with dense cover. These factors in addition to high coyote mortality suggested that coyote predation was not likely limiting white-tailed deer populations in southeast Minnesota. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Geographic patterns in morphometric and genetic variation for coyote populations with emphasis on southeastern coyotes

Prior to 1900, coyotes (Canis latrans) were restricted to the western and central regions of North America, but by the early 2000s, coyotes became ubiquitous throughout the eastern United States. Information regarding morphological and genetic structure of coyote populations in the southeastern United States is limited, and where data exist, they are rarely compared to those from other regions of North America. We assessed geographic patterns in morphology and genetics of coyotes with special consideration of coyotes in the southeastern United States. Mean body mass of coyote populations increased along a west‐to‐east gradient, with southeastern coyotes being intermediate to western and northeastern coyotes. Similarly, principal component analysis of body mass and linear body measurements suggested that southeastern coyotes were intermediate to western and northeastern coyotes in body size but exhibited shorter tails and ears from other populations. Genetic analyses indicated that southeastern coyotes represented a distinct genetic cluster that differentiated strongly from western and northeastern coyotes. We postulate that southeastern coyotes experienced lower immigration from western populations than did northeastern coyotes, and over time, genetically diverged from both western and northeastern populations. Coyotes colonizing eastern North America experienced different selective pressures than did stable populations in the core range, and we offer that the larger body size of eastern coyotes reflects an adaptation that improved dispersal capabilities of individuals in the expanding range.     

Interference competition between coyotes and raccoons: a test of the mesopredator release hypothesis

Some predator species appear to conform to the mesopredatorrelease hypothesis (MRH), in which larger predators help limitpopulations of smaller predators. This hypothesis has been usedto explain the possible relationship between coyotes, mesopredators,and resultant cascades involving nonpredators. However, relationshipsbetween coyotes and noncanid mesopredators are poorly understood,and predictions from the MRH have rarely been rigorously tested.We monitored sympatric raccoon and coyote populations to assess2 predictions derived from the MRH: coyote predation is an importantcause of mortality in raccoon populations or raccoons avoidareas used by coyotes. Between March 2000 and September 2001,we recorded 3553 locations for 27 radio-collared raccoons and1393 locations for 13 coyotes captured on the Max McGraw WildlifeFoundation in Illinois, USA. No raccoon mortality from coyotepredation was observed during the study, and raccoon survivalwas >0.7 each season. All raccoon 95% home ranges exhibitedoverlap with 95% coyote home ranges in each season. The meanproportion of raccoon locations within 95% coyote home rangesdid not vary by sex but did vary by season. Raccoon overlapof coyote core areas varied considerably among individuals withinseasons, ranging from 0% to 83%. However, 45% of raccoons had<10% overlap with coyote core areas, whereas only 14% ofraccoons exhibited >50% overlap. Mean overlap with core areasdid not vary by season or sex. For those raccoons with homeranges overlapping coyote core areas, mean proportion of observedraccoon locations within coyote core areas was generally greaterthan the mean proportion of random locations. Scent-stationexperiments failed to document raccoon avoidance of specificsites that had been marked with coyote urine. We did not findsupport for a mortality prediction or avoidance prediction tosupport MRH with regard to raccoons and coyotes. These resultssuggest that relationships among mammalian predators may notbe simply dictated by body size, particularly for species outsidethe Canidae.     

Effect of short-term coyote removal on populations of coyote helminths

Coyote (Canis latrans) removal programs often are initiated despite the potential population regulatory mechanism of parasitism with increased coyote density. We investigated the effect of intensive, short-term coyote removal on population levels of helminths in juvenile and adult coyotes from western Texas. Coyotes were killed by aerial gunning every 3 mo for 2 yr on two 5,000 ha areas, which reduced the overall coyote density of these areas by about 50%. Two other 5,000 ha areas were used as comparison sites where a limited number of coyotes were killed each season. Densities on comparison sites remained stable throughout the study at a mean +/- 1 SE of 0.14 +/- 0.01 coyotes/km2. Twelve helminth species consisting of seven nematodes (Ancylostoma caninum, Physaloptera rara, Toxascaris leonina, Dirofilaria immitis, Spirocerca lupi, Oslerus osleri, and Capillaria aerophila), three cestodes (Taenia pisiformis, Taenia multiceps, and Mesocestoides sp.), one acanthocephalan (Oncicola canis), and one trematode (Alaria marcianae) were found in 252 coyotes. Of these, A. caninum, P. rara, T. multiceps, T. pisiformis, T. leonina, and S. lupi were common species. Rank-transformed values for the mean abundances of A. caninum and T. multiceps and A. caninum, T. multiceps, and S. lupi were reduced in juvenile and adult coyotes, respectively, from the removal sites compared to respective helminth abundances in similar age class coyotes from comparison sites. Because A. caninum has been suggested as a population regulator of coyotes, a coyote removal program that results in a reduced density of coyotes and at the same time causes a reduced abundance of A. caninum, may in fact negate the regulatory effect that A. caninum has on coyote populations.     

Winter space use of coyotes in high-elevation environments: behavioral adaptations to deep-snow landscapes

In the last century, coyotes (Canis latrans) have expanded their range geographically, but have also expanded their use of habitats within currently occupied regions. Because coyotes are not morphologically adapted for travel in deep snow, we studied coyote space use patterns in a deep-snow landscape to examine behavioral adaptations enabling them to use high elevations during winter. We examined the influence of snow depth, snow penetrability, canopy cover, and habitat type, as well as the rates of prey and predator track encounters, on coyote travel distance in high-elevation terrain in northwestern Wyoming, USA. We backtracked 13 radio-collared coyotes for 265.41 km during the winters of 2006–2007 and 2007–2008, and compared habitat use and movement patterns of the actual coyotes with 259.11 km of random travel paths. Coyotes used specific habitats differently than were available on the landscape. Open woodlands were used for the majority of coyote travel distance, followed by mixed conifer, and closed-stand spruce–fir. Prey track encounters peaked in closed-stand, mature Douglas fir, followed by 50- to 150-year-old lodgepole pine stands, and 0- to 40-year-old regeneration lodgepole pine stands. Snowmobile trails had the most variation between use and availability on the landscape (12.0 % use vs. 0.6 % available). Coyotes increased use of habitats with dense canopy cover as snow penetration increased and rates of rodent and red squirrel track encounters increased. Additionally, coyotes spent more time in habitats containing more tracks of ungulates. Conversely, use of habitats with less canopy cover decreased as snow depth increased, and coyotes traveled more directly in habitats with less canopy cover and lower snow penetration, suggesting coyotes used these habitats to travel. Coyotes persisted throughout the winter and effectively used resources despite deep snow conditions in a high-elevation environment.     

Estimating Coyote Densities with Local,Discrete Bayesian Capture-Recapture Models

Recent advances in noninvasive genetic sampling and spatial capture-recapture (SCR) techniques are particularly useful for monitoring cryptic wildlife species such as carnivores. In southern Arizona, USA, coyotes (Canis latrans) are thought to negatively affect endangered Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis), although no estimates of coyote abundance or monitoring programs exist. Sonoran pronghorn are provided supplemental feed and water in this region, resulting in areas where pronghorn and other species are congregated. Because of the higher density of artificial water sources for Sonoran pronghorn on the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (CPNWR), we predicted that coyote density would be higher relative to the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR), where artificial water sources are less dense. We used discrete Bayesian SCR models in a local evaluation approach to provide baseline estimates of coyote abundance and understand how coyote density varied between 2 contrasting areas of land use. We identified 106 individuals from scat samples across 3 sessions in 2013 and 2014 and achieved high genotyping and individual identification success rates (~78%). Encounter rates at water catchments were nearly 11 times higher compared to road and trail transects. As predicted, we found that coyote density was on average 2 times higher on the CPNWR (11.2 coyotes/100 km²) compared to the BMGR (5.3 coyotes/100 km²). The local evaluation approach significantly reduced computational time, making the discrete Bayesian approach more practical to implement across a large study area. Our study represents an important contribution towards developing a robust monitoring program for coyotes. We hope that our novel implementation of the local evaluation approach increases the ability of wildlife managers to understand the effects of land use and other ecological influences on large carnivore populations. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Effects of Sarcoptic Mange on Coyotes at Wind Cave National Park

Abstract: Home-range size and population abundance indices of coyotes (Canis latrans) have not been documented in Wind Cave National Park, South Dakota, USA. In 2003 and 2004, we captured a total of 26 coyotes and radiocollared 22 adults (12 F, 10 M). In 2003 and 2004, 2 of 17 (12%) and 5 of 9 (56%) coyotes, respectively, were infected with sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei) at the time of capture. Thus, objectives were modified to document effects of the mange epizootic on the coyote population. In 2003, home-range (adaptive-kernel) sizes for male coyotes with mange and those considered healthy were 8.26 ± 1.63 (SE) km² and 9.67 ± 2.80 km², respectively. In 2004, home-range sizes for those male coyotes with and without mange were 22.69 ± 9.06 km² and 12.51 ± 2.73 km², respectively. Male home-range size did not differ between years (P = 0.14) or by status (with or without mange; P = 0.84). Survival of collared coyotes was 60% at the end of 2003. Results from fecal line transects, an index of relative abundance, indicated that the coyote population decreased by 48% from 2003 to 2004. Continued monitoring of sarcoptic mange epizootics will enable managers to assess the effects of mange on coyote populations.     

Using faecal DNA sampling and GIS to monitor hybridization between red wolves (Canis rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans)

The US Fish and Wildlife Service's (USFWS) Red Wolf Recovery Program recognizes hybridization with coyotes as the primary threat to red wolf recovery. Efforts to curb or stop hybridization are hampered in two ways. First, hybrid individuals are difficult to identify based solely on morphology. Second, managers need to effectively search 6000 km(2) for the presence of coyotes and hybrids. We develop a noninvasive method to screen large geographical areas for coyotes and hybrids with maternal coyote ancestry by combining mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of faeces (scat) and geographic information system (GIS) technology. This method was implemented on the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge (1000 km(2)) in northeastern North Carolina. A total of 956 scats were collected in the spring of 2000 and 2001 and global positioning system (GPS) coordinates were recorded. Seventy-five percent of the scats were assigned to species and five coyote/hybrid scats were detected. Placement of scat location coordinates on a map of the experimental population area revealed that four of the coyote/hybrid scats were detected within the home ranges of sterilized hybrids. The other coyote/hybrid scat indicated the presence of a previously unknown individual. We suggest this method be expanded to include more of the experimental population area and be optimized for use with nuclear markers to improve detection of hybrid and back-crossed individuals.     

Y‐chromosome evidence supports asymmetric dog introgression into eastern coyotes

Hybridization has played an important role in the evolutionary history of Canis species in eastern North America. Genetic evidence of coyote–dog hybridization based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is lacking compared to that based on autosomal markers. This discordance suggests dog introgression into coyotes has potentially been male biased, but this hypothesis has not been formally tested. Therefore, we investigated biparentally, maternally, and paternally inherited genetic markers in a sample of coyotes and dogs from southeastern Ontario to assess potential asymmetric dog introgression into coyotes. Analysis of autosomal microsatellite genotypes revealed minimal historical and contemporary admixture between coyotes and dogs. We observed only mutually exclusive mtDNA haplotypes in coyotes and dogs, but we observed Y‐chromosome haplotypes (Y‐haplotypes) in both historical and contemporary coyotes that were also common in dogs. Species‐specific Zfy intron sequences of Y‐haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs confirmed their homology and indicated a putative origin from dogs. We compared Y‐haplotypes observed in coyotes, wolves, and dogs profiled in multiple studies, and observed that the Y‐haplotypes shared between coyotes and dogs were either absent or rare in North American wolves, present in eastern coyotes, but absent in western coyotes. We suggest the eastern coyote has experienced asymmetric genetic introgression from dogs, resulting from predominantly historical hybridization with male dogs and subsequent backcrossing of hybrid offspring with coyotes. We discuss the temporal and spatial dynamics of coyote–dog hybridization and the conditions that may have facilitated the introgression of dog Y‐chromosomes into coyotes. Our findings clarify the evolutionary history of the eastern coyote.     

Coyote Habitat Selection and Management Implications for the Gaspésie Caribou

ABSTRACT Anthropogenic disturbances can promote establishment and growth of predator populations in areas where secondary prey can then become threatened. In this study, we investigated habitat selection of eastern coyotes (Canis latrans), a relatively new predator in the vicinity of an endangered population of caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). We hypothesized that coyotes in the boreal forest depend mainly on disturbed habitat, particularly that of anthropogenic origin, because these habitats provide increased food accessibility. Coyotes would likely take advantage of moose (Alces alces) carcasses, berries, and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) found in open habitats created by logging. To test these predictions, we described coyote diet and habitat selection at different spatial and temporal levels and then compared resource availability between habitats. To do so, we installed Global Positioning System radiocollars on 23 individual coyotes in the Gaspésie Peninsula, eastern Québec, Canada. Coyotes selected clear-cuts of 5–20 years and avoided mature coniferous forests both at the landscape and home-range levels. Clear-cuts of 5–20 years were found to contain a high availability of moose carcasses and berries, and vulnerability of snowshoe hares is known to increase in clear-cuts. The importance of these 3 food resources was confirmed by the characteristics of core areas used by coyotes and diet analysis. Moose remains were found at 45% of core areas and coyote diet comprised 51% moose on an annual basis. Anthropogenic disturbances in the boreal forest thus seem to benefit coyotes. Our results indicated that the relationship between coyotes and caribou likely involves spillover predation. This knowledge allows managers to consider spillover predation by coyotes as a possible threat for endangered caribou population when the predator depends mainly on habitat of anthropogenic origin and to suggest methods to alleviate it when developing management plans.     

Can Coyotes Affect Deer Populations in Southeastern North America?

ABSTRACT The coyote (Canis latrans) is a recent addition to the fauna of eastern North America, and in many areas coyote populations have been established for only a decade or two. Although coyotes are known predators of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in their historic range, effects this new predator may have on eastern deer populations have received little attention. We speculated that in the southeastern United States, coyotes may be affecting deer recruitment, and we present 5 lines of evidence that suggest this possibility. First, the statewide deer population in South Carolina has declined coincident with the establishment and increase in the coyote population. Second, data sets from the Savannah River Site (SRS) in South Carolina indicate a new mortality source affecting the deer population concurrent with the increase in coyotes. Third, an index of deer recruitment at SRS declined during the period of increase in coyotes. Fourth, food habits data from SRS indicate that fawns are an important food item for coyotes during summer. Finally, recent research from Alabama documented significant coyote predation on fawns there. Although this evidence does not establish cause and effect between coyotes and observed declines in deer recruitment, we argue that additional research should proactively address this topic in the region. We identified several important questions on the nature of the deer—coyote relationship in the East.     

Does availability of anthropogenic food enhance densities of omnivorous mammals? An example with coyotes in southern California

To evaluate whether the abundance of coyotes Canis latrans was influenced by the availability of anthropogenic foods in a humanized landscape, we compared three neighboring areas (hereafter referred to as NA, CA, and SA) under contrasting human pressures within the Santa Monica Mountains of California, USA. We quantified the use of anthropogenic foods by coyotes and assessed local densities within these three regions. Overall, 761 coyote feces were analyzed; identified food items were categorized into 11 food types (7 native and 4 anthropogenic). Though small mammals (lagomorphs and rodents) were the main prey of coyotes in all areas and seasons, log‐linear modeling of multiway contingency tables indicates that consumption of anthropogenic foods by coyotes varied significantly throughout study areas. Thus, in the most humanized area (CA; 24% of this region is residential habitat), anthropogenic foods (trash, livestock, domestic fruit) comprised seasonally between 14 and 25% of total items in coyote diets, whereas in the least humanized area (NA; 2% residential) anthropogenic foods only comprised seasonally between 0 and 3% of items. Coyote density, estimated by foot‐hold trapping surveys and by genotyping feces, was also highly variable between areas. The heavily human‐impacted CA area had the highest coyote density (2.4–3.0 ind. km^?2), whereas coyote density was significantly lower (0.3–0.4 ind. km^?2) in the least humanized area (NA). In the third region (SA; 10% residential), with an intermediate level of human pressure, both importance of anthropogenic foods in coyote diet (4–6%) and coyote density (1.6–2.0 ind. km^?2) were intermediate compared to the other regions. Our data suggest that subsidization by anthropogenic foods augments coyote densities and alters their diets in the Santa Monica Mountains, California. We include data from literature to show that anthropogenic foods are used by omnivorous mammals throughout the world. Surprisingly, however, the potential effects of allochthonous inputs on such species are not well‐understood. Thus, further research on this phenomenon in humanized landscapes is needed.     

Territory fidelity, space use, and survival rates of wild coyotes following surgical sterilization

Sterilization of wild canids is being used experimentally in many management applications. Few studies have clearly demonstrated vasectomized and tubal-ligated canids will retain pair-bonding and territorial behaviors. We tested whether territory fidelity, space use, and survival rates of surgically sterilized coyote (Canis latrans) packs were different from sham-operated coyote packs. We captured and radio-collared 30 coyotes in December 2006. Sixteen of these animals were sterilized via vasectomy or tubal ligation, and 14 were given sham-surgeries (i.e., remained intact). We monitored these animals using telemetry and visual observations through 2 breeding seasons and 1 pup-rearing season from December 2006 to March 2008. Mean pack size was not significantly different between sterile and intact coyote packs. We found no difference in home range size between sterile and intact coyotes. We found differences in home range and core area overlap between sterile and intact coyote packs in some seasons; however, this difference may have existed prior to sterilization. Home range fidelity was not significantly different between sterile and intact coyotes. All coyotes had higher residency rates during the breeding season, with no differences between sterile and intact coyotes. Survival rates were correlated with biological season, but there were no differences in survival rates between sterile and intact coyotes. We concluded that surgical sterilization of coyotes did not affect territory fidelity, survival rates, or home range maintenance.     

Urban coyotes select cryptic den sites near human development where conflict rates increase

The establishment of coyote (Canis latrans) populations in urban areas across North America has been accompanied by increased rates of human–coyote conflict. One factor thought to promote physical conflict between coyotes and people or pets is the presence of coyote pups near natal dens; however, this idea has not been tested, and no multivariate study of den selection within cities has occurred. Our objectives were to conduct a multivariate analysis of third- (i.e., home range) and fourth-order (i.e., den sites) habitat selection at dens and determine whether proximity to dens is associated with reports of physical conflict with coyotes. We found 120 dens by following coyote trails using snow tracking within urban green spaces that comprise presumed high-quality habitat for coyotes in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. We used resource selection functions to assess habitat selection for dens, testing variables related to land cover and anthropogenic features at the third order, and testing microsite habitat features via paired sites at the fourth order. We defined conflict encounters from comments in a community reporting database and used general linear models to assess their spatial proximity to the nearest den and prevalence during the pup-rearing period compared to the rest of the year. Habitat selection was strongest at the fourth order, wherein coyotes selected for abundant hiding cover, steep slopes, and eastern exposure. The prevalence of physical conflict with coyotes increased during the pup-rearing period. Conflict also increased near known dens as an overall effect and when reports occurred outside of naturalized urban areas. These results suggest that coyotes in Edmonton den in green spaces near human development in microsites that minimize detection by people via steep slopes and dense vegetation. We suggest urban wildlife managers increase public safety education about recognition of coyote denning habitat and coyote defensive behaviors, especially outside of naturalized urban areas, because of the observed increase in physical conflict near dens.