Cell surface expression of 27C7 by neonatal rat olfactory ensheathing cells in situ and in vitro is independent of axonal contact

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are Schwann cell-like glial cells of the olfactory system that promote neural regeneration after transplantation into the injured central nervous system. Compared to the closely related Schwann cells, however, the biological characterization of OECs has remained fragmentary. This is due to the fact that the expression of OEC-specific markers is subject to complex regulation and that intricate ultrastructural analysis is essential to determine their localization. The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR) as the prototype OEC marker, for example, is only expressed by a minor population of neonatal rat OECs in situ. The major population carries O4-positive axonal fragments on their surface after dissociation and up-regulates p75^NTR during culturing (Wewetzer et al. in Glia 49:577–587, 2005). In the present study, we investigated whether the cell surface determinant 27C7, defined by a monoclonal antibody to Schwann cells, is also expressed by neonatal rat OECs in situ and in vitro. Primary cell suspensions of the olfactory bulb displayed 27C7 expression of both p75^NTR-negative and p75^NTR-positive OECs, while immature oligodendrocytes and astrocytes were devoid of any 27C7 labeling. This together with the finding that the intrafascicular OECs of the olfactory nerves in the mucosa expressed 27C7 but not p75^NTR, suggests that 27C7 was expressed by the entire OEC population in situ. Maintenance of OECs in the absence of olfactory neurons in organotypic slice culture up-regulated p75^NTR but did not alter 27C7 expression. It is concluded that 27C7 unlike p75^NTR is constitutively expressed by OECs and may, therefore, be a useful marker for characterization of neonatal OECs in situ and in vitro.     

Remyelination of spinal cord axons by olfactory ensheathing cells and Schwann cells derived from a transgenic rat expressing alkaline phosphatase marker gene

Transplantation of cell suspensions containing olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) has been reported to remyelinate demyelinated axons in the spinal cord with a Schwann cell (SC)-like pattern of myelination. However, questions have been raised recently as to whether OECs can form SC-like myelin. To address this issue we prepared SCs and OECs from transgenic rats in which a marker gene, human placental alkaline phosphatase (hPAP), is linked to the ubiquitously active promoter of the R26 gene. SCs were prepared from the sciatic nerve and OECs from the outer nerve-fiber layer of the olfactory bulb. Positive S100 and p75 immunostaining indicated that >95% of cells in culture displayed either SC or OEC phenotypes. Suspensions of either SCs or OECs were transplanted into an X-irradiation/ethidium bromide demyelinating lesion in the spinal cord. We observed extensive SC-like remyelination following either SC or OEC transplantation 3 weeks after injection of the cells. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) chromagen reaction product was associated clearly with the myelin-forming cells. Thus, cell suspensions that are enriched in either SCs or OECs result in peripheral-like myelin when transplanted in vivo.     

Phagocytic Removal of Neuronal Debris by Olfactory Ensheathing Cells Enhances Neuronal Survival and Neurite Outgrowth via p38MAPK Activity

Compelling evidence from animal models and clinical studies suggest that transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), specialized glia in the olfactory system, combined with specific training may be therapeutically useful in the central nervous system (CNS) injuries and neurodegenerative diseases. The unique function of OECs could mainly attribute to both production of cell adhesion molecules and secretion of growth factors in OECs, which support neuron survival and neurite outgrowth. However, little is known about whether engulfment of neuronal degenerative debris by OECs also equally contributes to neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms responsible for neuronal degenerative corpses' removal remain elusive. Here, we used an in vitro model of primary culture of spinal cord neurons to investigate the effect of engulfment of degenerative neuron debris by OECs on neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth and the possible molecular mechanisms. Our results showed that OECs can engulf an amount of degenerated neuron debris, and this phagocytosis can make a substantial contribution to neuron growth, as demonstrated by increased number of neurons with longer neurite length and richer neurite branches when compared with the combination of neuron debris and OEC conditioned medium (OECCM). Moreover, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK) signaling pathway may mediate the OEC engulfment of debris because the p38MAPK-specific inhibitor, SB203580, can abrogate all the positive effects of OECs, including clearance of degenerated neuron debris and generation of bioactive molecules, indicating that p38MAPK is required for the process of phagocytosis of the neuron debris. In addition, the OEC phagocytic activity had no influence on its generation of bioactive molecules. Therefore, these findings provide new insight into further investigations on the OEC role in the repair of traumatic CNS injury and neurodegenerative diseases.     

Potential conversion of adult clavicle-derived chondrocytes into neural lineage cells in vitro

Neural stem cells (NSC) can be isolated from a variety of adult tissues and become a valuable cell source for the repair of peripheral and central nervous diseases. However, their origin and identity remain controversial because of possible de-differentiation/trans-differentiation or contaminations by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) or mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). We hypothesize that the commonly used NSC culture medium can induce committed cartilage chondrocytes to de-differentiate and/or trans-differentiate into neural cell lineages. Using a biological isolation and purification method with explants culture, we here show that adult rat clavicle cartilage chondrocytes migrate out from tissue blocks, form sphere-like structures, possess the capability of self-renewal, express nestin and p75NTR, markers for neural crest progenitors, and differentiate into neurons, glia, and smooth muscle cells. Comparing with adult cartilage, the spherical-forming neural crest cell-like cells downregulate the chondrocytic marker genes, including collagen II, collagen X, and sox9, as well as neural-lineage repressors/silencers REST and coREST, but upregulate a set of well-defined genes related to neural crest cells and pro-neural potential. Nerve growth factor (NGF) and glial growth factor (GGF) increase glial and neuronal differentiation, respectively. These results suggest that chondrocytes derived from adult clavicle cartilage can become neural crest stem-like cells and acquire neuronal phenotypes in vitro. The possible de-differentiation/trans-differentiation mechanisms underlying the conversion were discussed.     

Defining the morphological phenotype: 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase (CNPase) is a novel marker for in situ detection of canine but not rat olfactory ensheathing cells

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are the non-myelinating glial cells of the olfactory nerves and bulb. The fragmentary characterization of OECs in situ during normal development may be due to their small size requiring intricate ultrastructural analysis and to the fact that available markers for in situ detection are either expressed only by OEC subpopulations or lost during development. In the present study, we searched for markers with stable expression in OECs and investigated the spatiotemporal distribution of CNPase, an early oligodendrocyte/Schwann cell marker, in comparison with the prototype marker p75^NTR. Anti-CNPase antibodies labeled canine but not rat OECs in situ, while Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes were positive in both species. CNPase immunoreactivity in the dog was confined to all OECs throughout the postnatal development and associated with the entire cell body, including its finest processes, while p75^NTR was mainly detected in perineural cells and only in some neonatal OECs. Adult olfactory bulb slices displayed CNPase expression after 4 and 10 days, while p75^NTR was detectable only after 10 days in vitro. Finally, treatment of purified adult canine OECs with fibroblast growth factor-2 significantly reduced CNPase expression at the protein and mRNA level. Taken together, we conclude that CNPase but not p75^NTR is a stable marker suitable for in situ visualization of OECs that will facilitate their light-microscopic characterization and challenge our general view of OEC marker expression in situ. The fact that canine but not rat OECs expressed CNPase supports the idea that glia from large animals differs substantially from rodents.     

Migratory properties of cultured olfactory ensheathing cells by single-cell migration assay

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) are a unique type of glial cells that have axonal growth-promoting properties. OEC transplantation has emerged as a promising experimental therapy of axonal injuries and demyelinating diseases. However, some fundamental cellular properties of OECs remain unclear. In this study, we found that the distinct OEC subpopulations exhibited different migratory properties based on time-lapse imaging of single isolated cells, possibly due to their different cytoskeletal organizations. Moreover, OEC subpopulations displayed different attractive migratory responses to a gradient of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) in single-cell migration assays. Finally, we found that OEC subpopulations transformed into each other spontaneously. Together, these results demonstrate, for the first time to our knowledge, that distinct OEC subpopulations display different migratory properties in vitro and provide new evidence to support the notion of OECs as a single cell type with malleable functional phenotypes.     

The migration of olfactory ensheathing cells during development and regeneration

The primary olfactory nervous system is unique in that it continuously renews itself and regenerates after injury. These properties are attributed to the presence of olfactory glia, termed olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs). Evidence is now emerging that individual OEC populations exist with distinct anatomical localisations and physiological properties, but their differential roles have not been determined. Unlike other glia, OECs can migrate from the periphery into the central nervous system, and organised OEC migration can enhance axonal extension after injury. Despite this, the mechanisms regulating OEC migration are largely unknown. Here, we provide an overview of the roles of OECs in development and adulthood. We review the latest research describing the differences between individual OEC subpopulations and discuss potential regulatory mechanisms for OEC guidance and migration. Using advanced time lapse techniques, we have obtained novel insights into how OECs behave in a complex multicellular environment which we discuss here with particular focus on cell-cell interactions. Significantly, transplantation of OECs constitutes a promising novel therapy for nerve injuries, but results are highly variable and the method needs improvement. We here review the roles of transplanted OECs in neural repair of damaged neuronal tracts distinct from the primary olfactory nervous system.     

Functional inhibition of the p75 receptor using a small interfering RNA

The neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) mediates a wide variety of biological effects. Consistent with the function in controlling the survival and neurite formation, p75(NTR) is expressed during the developmental stages of the nervous system. Importantly, p75(NTR) is re-expressed in various pathological conditions and is suggested to contribute to the inhibition of neuronal regeneration and the death of the neurons. Here we develop a tool to knock down the expression of p75(NTR) by employing a small interfering RNA (siRNA). The siRNA for p75(NTR) effectively reduces the expression of endogenous p75(NTR) both in Schwann cells and dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro. NGF-induced cell death in Schwann cells and the neurite retraction in DRG neurons induced by myelin-associated glycoprotein are attenuated by the siRNA. Inhibition of p75(NTR) in specific pathological conditions by the siRNA may provide a potential therapeutic agent.     

Central Nervous System Lesions That Can and Those That Cannot Be Repaired with the Help of Olfactory Bulb Ensheathing Cell Transplants

Growth-promoting macroglia (aldynoglia) with growth properties and immunological markers similar to Schwann cells, are found in loci of the mammalian CNS where axon regeneration occurs throughout life, like the olfactory sytem, hypothalamus-hypophysis and the pineal gland [79]. Contrary to Schwann cells, aldynoglia mingle freely with astrocytes and can migrate in brain and spinal cord. Transplantation of cultured and immunopurified olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) in the spinal cord after multiple central rhizotomy, promoted sensory and central axon growth and partial functional restoration, judging by anatomical, electrophysiological and behavioural criteria. OEC transplants suppressed astrocyte reactivity, thus generally favouring axon growth after a lesion. However, the functional repair promoted by OEC transplants was partial in the best cases, depending on lesion type and location. Cyst formation after photochemical cord lesion was partially prevented but neither the corticospinal tract, interrupted by a mild contusion, nor the sectioned medial longitudinal fascicle, did regrow after OEC transplantation in the injured area.     

Olfactory ensheathing cells: their role in central nervous system repair

The olfactory system is an unusual tissue in that it can support neurogenesis throughout life; permitting the in-growth and synapse formation of olfactory receptor axons into the central nervous system (CNS) environment of the olfactory bulb. It is thought that this unusual property is in part due to the olfactory glial cells, termed olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), but also due to neuronal stem cells. These glial cells originate from the olfactory placode and possess many properties in common with the glial cells from the peripheral nervous system (PNS), Schwann cells. Recent data has suggested that olfactory ensheathing cells are a distinct glial cell type and possess properties, which might make them more suitable for transplant-mediated repair of central nervous system injury models. This paper reviews the biological properties of these cells and illustrates their use in central nervous system repair.     

Fibroblasts Isolated from Human Middle Turbinate Mucosa Cause Neural Progenitor Cells to Differentiate into Glial Lineage Cells

Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) is a potential therapy for repair of spinal cord injury (SCI). Autologous transplantation of OECs has been reported in clinical trials. However, it is still controversial whether purified OECs or olfactory mucosa containing OECs, fibroblasts and other cells should be used for transplantation. OECs and fibroblasts were isolated from olfactory mucosa of the middle turbinate from seven patients. The percentage of OECs with p75^NTR+ and GFAP⁺ ranged from 9.2% to 73.2%. Fibroblasts were purified and co-cultured with normal human neural progenitors (NHNPs). Based on immunocytochemical labeling, NHNPs were induced into glial lineage cells when they were co-cultured with the mucosal fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that OECs can be isolated from the mucosa of the middle turbinate bone as well as from the dorsal nasal septum and superior turbinates, which are the typical sites for harvesting OECs. Transplantation of olfactory mucosa containing fibroblasts into the central nervous system (CNS) needs to be further investigated before translation to clinical application.     

Current state of the development of mesenchymal stem cells into clinically applicable Schwann cell transplants

Schwann cells are critically important in recovery from injuries to the peripheral nervous system, and their absence from the central nervous system (CNS) may be a critical limiting factor in the CNS regeneration capacity. Various types of stem cells have been investigated for their potential to be induced to develop a Schwann cell phenotype, with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) being the most promising among them. The methods for inducing MSCs differentiation into Schwann cell-like cells are presented in detail in this review. The evidence related to successful differentiation of MSCs to Schwann cell-like cells is particularly discussed herein, which includes the changes in morphology, phenotype, function, and proteome. The possible explanations for the differentiation of MSCs to Schwann cell-like cells are also presented. Finally, we suggest future research aims which will need to be fulfilled to elucidate the biology of Schwann cell differentiation and MSC transdifferentiation, to enable clinical application of therapeutic differentiated MSC transplantation into nerve injury sites.     

Morphological and functional plasticity of olfactory ensheathing cells

In the primary olfactory pathway, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) extend processes to envelop bundles of olfactory axons as they course towards their termination in the olfactory bulb. The expression of growth-promoting adhesion and extracellular matrix molecules by OECs, and their spatially close association with olfactory axons are consistent with OECs being involved in promoting and guiding olfactory axon growth. Because of this, OECs have been employed as a possible tool for inducing axonal regeneration in the injured adult CNS, resulting in significant functional recovery in some animal models and promising outcomes from early clinical applications. However, fundamental aspects of OEC biology remain unclear. This brief review discusses some of the experimental data that have resulted in conflicting views with regard to the identity of OECs. We present here recent findings which support the notion of OECs as a single but malleable phenotype which demonstrate extensive morphological and functional plasticity depending on the environmental stimuli. The review includes a discussion of the normal functional role of OECs in the developing primary olfactory pathway as well as their interaction with regenerating axons and reactive astrocytes in the novel environment of the injured CNS. The use of OECs to induce repair in the injured nervous system reflects the functional plasticity of these cells. Finally, we will explore the possibility that recent microarray data could point to OECs assuming an innate immune function or playing a role in modulating neuroinflammation.     

逆转录病毒介导的人NT—3在嗅神经鞘细胞中的表达及活性检测

本文构建了pRev-TRE-NT-3的逆转录病毒表达载体,通过Ecopack293细胞将其与pRevTet-On分别进行包装,制备了重组缺陷型的hNT-3和Tet-on逆转录病毒,用这两种病毒感染原代培养大鼠神经嗅神经鞘细胞（olfctory ensheathing cells,OECs),并经强力霉素（Dox）诱导,获得Dox浓度依赖性hNT-3表达的OECs,最后经过Western-Blot检测hNT-3的表达以及通过DRG与NT－3转染后OECs联合培养来对表达的hNT-3活性进行鉴定,结果：（1）hNT-3－pcDNA的多克隆位点,用EcoRI和HindⅢ酶切,PCR扩增,再用Sall和Hind Ⅲ切下全长编码的hNT-3cDNA,定向连接到pRev-TRE上,pRev-TRE全长为6．5kb,NT-3全长为0.78kb,pRev-TRE-NT-3重组体经过鉴定,确认插入子的方向和完整性,结果与预期相符。（2）hNT-3修饰的OECs培养上清经Western-blot检测,与hNT-3抗体结合的蛋白条带分子量约为28kd,hNT-3修饰过的OECs上清表达量明显高于未转染组OECs的表达量,且hNT-3表达量与Dox浓度有依赖性。（3）与hNT-3修饰的OECs联合培养背根神经节（dorsal root ganglion,DRG),有许多DRG细胞向外迁移,这些细胞折光性强,突起较长而纤细,并形成复杂的网络。而未修饰的OECs组, 只有少量的细胞迁移生长,细胞迁移和突起生长都很局限,空白对照组的DRG没有向外迁移的细胞和向外延伸的突起;且对照组的突起生长长度明显比NT－3修饰的实验组短（P＜0．01）。这些结果表明,Tet-On调控NT－3表达在OECs转染成功,为进一步体内移植修复损伤提供了理想的材料。     

逆转录病毒介导的人NT-3在嗅神经鞘细胞中的表达及活性检测

本文构建了pRev-TRF-NT-3的逆转录病毒表达载体,通过Fcopack293细胞将其与pRev-Tet-On分别进行包装,制备了重组缺陷型的hNT-3和Tet-on逆转录病毒,用这两种病毒感染原代培养大鼠嗅神经鞘细胞(olfactory ensheathing cells,OECs),并经强力霉素(Dox)诱导,获得Dox浓度依赖性hNT-3表达的OECs,最后经过Western-Blot检测hNT-3的表达以及通过DRG与NT-3转染后OECs联合培养来对表达的hNT-3活性进行鉴定,结果:(1)hNT-3-pcDNA的多克隆位点,用EcoR Ⅰ和Hind Ⅲ酶切,PCR扩增,再用Sall和Hind Ⅲ切下全长编码的hNT-3 cDNA,定向连接到pRev-TRF上,pRev-TRF全长为6.5kb,NT-3全长为0.78kb,pRev-TRE-NT-3重组体经过鉴定,确认插入子的方向和完整性,结果与预期相符。(2)hNT-3修饰的OECs培养上清经Western-blot检测,与hNT-3抗体结合的蛋白条带分子量约为28kd,hNT-3修饰过的OECs上清表达量明显高于未转染组OECs的表达量,且hNT-3表达量与Dox浓度有依赖性。(3)与hNT-3修饰的OECs联合培养背根神经节(dorsal root ganglion,DRG),有许多DRG细胞向外迁移,这些细胞折光性强,突起较长而纤细,并形成复杂的网络。而未修饰的OECs组,只有少量的细胞迁移生长,细胞迁移和突起生长都很局限,空白对照组的DRG没有向外迁移的细胞和向外延伸的突起;且对照组的突起生长长度明显比NT-3修饰的实验组短(P<0.01)。这些结果表明,Tet-On调控NT-3表达在OECs转染成功,为进一步体内移植修复损伤提供了理想的材料。     

cAMP介导血清引起的嗅鞘细胞形态变化

嗅鞘细胞是一类兼有星形胶质细胞和雪旺细胞特性的胶质细胞。培养的嗅鞘细胞存在两种能相互转化的形态亚型,然而转化的分子机制并不清楚。本研究旨在建立一种研究离体培养嗅鞘细胞形态转化的方法,基于该方法研究其相互转化的机制。采用原代培养大鼠嗅鞘细胞和免疫细胞化学技术,观察在有、无血清培养或给予双丁酰-环核苷酸(dB-cAMP)药物条件下嗅鞘细胞形态,并统计雪旺样和星形样嗅鞘细胞亚型的比例。结果显示:(1)在无血清培养条件下,(95.2±3.7)%嗅鞘细胞呈雪旺样形态,(4.8±3.7)%呈星形样形态;而在10%血清培养条件下,(42.5±10.4)%嗅鞘细胞呈雪旺样形态,(57.5±10.4)%呈星形样形态,随后换回无血清条件下培养24h,(94.8±5.0)%嗅鞘细胞呈雪旺样形态,(5.2±5.0)%呈星形样形态。(2)有无血清的培养条件并不影响嗅鞘细胞标记物p-75和S-100的表达。(3)在正常(10%)血清培养情况下,cAMP类似物dB-cAMP抑制F肌动蛋白应力纤维(F-actin stress fibers)和黏着斑(focal adhesion)形成,抑制血清引起的嗅鞘细胞形态变化,雪旺样细胞比例增加,并...     

Clonal In Vitro Analysis of Neurotrophin Receptor p75-Immunofluorescent Cells Reveals Phenotypic Plasticity of Primary Rat Olfactory Ensheathing Cells

Clonal in vitro analysis represents a powerful tool for studying cellular differentiation. In the present study, microscope-assisted single cell transfer was combined with immunofluorescence to establish clonal cultures of identified primary rat olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs). During development, OECs originate from the neural crest, a transient population of multipotent cells. Since only neural crest cells have been analyzed at clonal density, it remained unclear whether OECs may retain multipotent features. Neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75^NTR)-immunolabelled rat OECs were seeded at clonal density under visual control using a semiautomated cell selection and transfer device (Quixell?) and emerging clones were analyzed with regard to proliferation and antigenic expression. We demonstrate that OECs from neonatal (P1) and 7 day-old (P7) but not from adult rats formed clones in the presence of OEC- and astrocyte-conditioned media (OEC-CM, A-CM). Cloning efficiency but not in vitro growth of OECs was independent of age but increased upon treatment with OEC-CM. Interestingly, about 75 % of P1 compared to 27 % of P7 OEC clones lost p75^NTR expression during 2 weeks in vitro and acquired immunoreactivity for Thy-1. The observation that primary OECs from P1 lost expression of p75^NTR at clonal density and initiated expression of the fibroblast marker Thy-1 may suggest that their developmental potential is greater than previously anticipated. Since microscope-assisted selection of immunofluorescent cells combined with semiautomated transfer guarantees monoclonality in a single step and affords selection of cells according to fluorescent label and/or morphological criteria it may be relevant for a variety of other cell types.     

The Effects of Co-transplantation of Olfactory Ensheathing Cells and Schwann Cells on Local Inflammation Environment in the Contused Spinal Cord of Rats

Inflammatory response following spinal cord injury (SCI) is important in regulation of the repair process. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and Schwann cells (SCs) are important donor cells for repairing SCI in different animal models. However, synergistic or complementary effects of co-transplantation of both cells for this purpose have not been extensively investigated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of co-transplantation of OECs and SCs on expression of pro- or anti-inflammatory factor and polarization of macrophages in the injured spinal cord of rats. Mixed cell suspensions containing OECs and SCs were transplanted into the injured site at 7 days after contusion at the vertebral T10 level. Compared with the DMEM, SC, or OEC group, the co-transplantation group had a more extensive distribution of the grafted cells and significantly reduced number of astrocytes, microglia/macrophage infiltration, and expression of chemokines (CCL2 and CCL3) at the injured site. The co-transplantation group also significantly increased arginase⁺/CD206⁺ macrophages (IL-4) and decreased iNOS⁺/CD16/32⁺ macrophages (IFN-γ), which was followed by higher IL-10 and IL-13 and lower IL-6 and TNF-α in their expression levels, a smaller cystic cavity area, and improved motor functions. These results indicate that OEC and SC co-transplantation could promote the shift of the macrophage phenotype from M(IFN-γ) to M(IL-4), reduce inflammatory cell infiltration in the injured site, and regulate inflammatory factors and chemokine expression, which provide a better immune environment for SCI repair.     

Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells promotes the recovery of neurological functions in rats with traumatic brain injury associated with downregulation of Bad

Background aimsThe neuroprotective effects of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) after transplantation have largely been known in the injured nervous system. However, the underlying mechanisms still must be further elucidated. We explored the effects of OEC transplantation on the recovery of neurophysiologic function and the related anti-apoptosis mechanism in acute traumatic brain injury.MethodsThe OECs from neonatal Sprague-Dawley rats were isolated, identified and labeled and then were immediately transplanted into the regions surrounding the injured brain site that is resulted from free-weight drop injury.ResultsNerve growth factor and it's recepor, p75 was expressed in cultured OECs. Transplanted OECs survived, migrated around the injury site and significantly improved the neurological severe scores compared with the control group (P < 0.05). OEC transplantation significantly increased the number of GAP-43–immunopositive fibers and synaptophysin-positive vesicles (P < 0.05) but significantly decreased the number of apoptotic cells (P < 0.05). On the molecular level, the expression of Bad in the OEC transplantation group was significantly downregulated (P < 0.05).ConclusionsOEC transplantation could effectively improve neurological deficits in TBI rats; the underlying mechanism may be related with their effects on neuroprotection and regeneration induction, which is associated with the downregulation of the apoptotic molecule Bad.