Aquaporin-4 water channels and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the major water channel expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and is primarily expressed in glial cells. Many studies have shown that AQP4 regulates the response of the CNS to insults or injury, but far less is known about the potential for AQP4 to influence synaptic plasticity or behavior. Recent studies have examined long-term potentiation (LTP), long-term depression (LTD), and behavior in AQP4 knockout (KO) and wild-type mice to gain more insight into its potential role. The results showed a selective effect of AQP4 deletion on LTP of the Schaffer collateral pathway in hippocampus using an LTP induction protocol that simulates pyramidal cell firing during theta oscillations (theta-burst stimulation; TBS). However, LTP produced by a different induction protocol was unaffected. There was also a defect in LTD after low frequency stimulation (LFS) in AQP4 KO mice. Interestingly, some slices from AQP4 KO mice exhibited LTD after TBS instead of LTP, or LTP following LFS instead of LTD. These data suggest that AQP4 and astrocytes influence the polarity of long-term synaptic plasticity (potentiation or depression). These potentially powerful roles expand the influence of AQP4 and astrocytes beyond the original suggestions related to regulation of extracellular potassium and water balance. Remarkably, AQP4 KO mice did not show deficits in basal transmission, suggesting specificity for long-term synaptic plasticity. The mechanism appears to be related to neurotrophins and specifically brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) because pharmacological blockade of neurotrophin trk receptors or scavenging ligands such as BDNF restored plasticity. The in vitro studies predicted effects in vivo of AQP4 deletion because AQP4 KO mice performed worse using a task that requires memory for the location of objects (object placement). However, performance on other hippocampal-dependent tasks was spared. The results suggest an unanticipated and selective role of AQP4 in synaptic plasticity and spatial memory, and underscore the growing appreciation of the role of glial cells in functions typically attributed to neurons. Implications for epilepsy are discussed because of the previous evidence that AQP4 influences seizures, and the role of synaptic plasticity in epileptogenesis.     

Evidence against involvement of aquaporin-4 in cell-cell adhesion

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channels are expressed strongly in glial cells, where they play a role in brain water balance, neuroexcitation, and glial cell migration. Here, we investigated a proposed new role of AQP4 in facilitating cell-cell adhesion. Measurements were made in differentiated primary glial cell cultures from wild-type versus AQP4 knockout mice as well as in null versus AQP4-transfected L-cells, a cell type lacking endogenous adhesion molecules, and in null versus AQP4-transfected Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-K1 cells and Fisher rat thyroid cells. Using established assays of cell-cell adhesion, we found no significant effect of AQP4 expression on adhesion in each of the cell types. As a positive control, transfection with E-cadherin greatly increased cell-cell adhesion. High-level AQP4 expression also did not affect aggregation of plasma membrane vesicles in a sensitive quasi-elastic light-scattering assay. Further, we found no specific AQP4 binding of a fluorescently labeled oligopeptide containing the putative adhesion sequence in the second extracellular loop of AQP4. These data provide evidence against involvement of AQP4 in cell-cell adhesion.     

Glial cell aquaporin-4 overexpression in transgenic mice accelerates cytotoxic brain swelling

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is a water transport protein expressed in glial cell plasma membranes, including glial cell foot processes lining the blood-brain barrier. AQP4 deletion in mice reduces cytotoxic brain edema produced by different pathologies. To determine whether AQP4 is rate-limiting for brain water accumulation and whether altered AQP4 expression, as occurs in various pathologies, could have functional importance, we generated mice that overexpressed AQP4 in brain glial cells by a transgenic approach using the glial fibrillary acid protein promoter. Overexpression of AQP4 protein in brain by approximately 2.3-fold did not affect mouse survival, appearance, or behavior, nor did it affect brain anatomy or intracranial pressure (ICP). However, following acute water intoxication produced by intraperitoneal water injection, AQP4-overexpressing mice had an accelerated progression of cytotoxic brain swelling, with ICP elevation of 20 +/- 2 mmHg at 10 min, often producing brain herniation and death. In contrast, ICP elevation was 14 +/- 2 mmHg at 10 min in control mice and 9.8 +/- 2 mmHg in AQP4 knock-out mice. The deduced increase in brain water content correlated linearly with brain AQP4 protein expression. We conclude that AQP4 expression is rate-limiting for brain water accumulation, and thus, that altered AQP4 expression can be functionally significant.     

Expression of aquaporin-4 water channels in the digestive tract of the guinea pig

Expression of the aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel was systematically studied in the digestive tract of the guinea pig using Western blot and immunofluorescence techniques. The results showed that AQP4 was expressed widely in different segments of the guinea pig digestive tract. AQP4-immunoreactivity was confined to parietal cells in the stomach, and absorptive and glandular epithelial cells of small and large intestine. AQP4 protein was also expressed by enteric glial cells of submucosal and myenteric ganglia and primary nerve trunks. AQP4 was expressed by both type I and type II enteric gliocytes, but not by type III or type IV enteric gliocytes, indicating that enteric gliocytes have a heterogeneous distribution in the gut wall. In addition, different patterns of AQP4 expression in the enteric nervous system of human, guinea pig, rat and mouse colon mucosa were identified: in rat and mouse AQP4 was localised to a small subpopulation of neurons; in the guinea pig AQP4 was localised to enteric glial cells; and in the human colon mucosa, AQP4 was also detected mainly in the glial cells. It has been speculated that AQP4 may be involved in water transport in the gastrointestinal tract. Its role in enteric neurons and glia is unknown, but, by analogy with the brain, AQP4 may be involved in the formation and resolution of edema.     

The role of mammalian superaquaporins inside the cell

Background

The mammalian two superaquaporins, AQP11 and AQP12, are present inside the cell and their null phenotypes in mice suggest their unusual functions.

Scope of review

The surveyed literature on these superaquaporins and our unpublished data has been incorporated to speculate their roles.

Major conclusions

AQP11 and AQP12 have unique NPA boxes with a signature cysteine residue. Although some water permeability of AQP11 was demonstrated in liposomes and cultured cells, its permeability to glycerol is unknown. The function of AQP12 still remains to be clarified. AQP11 null mice develop polycystic kidneys following large intracellular vacuoles in the proximal tubule, which may be caused by ER stress or vesicle fusion failure. The role of AQP11 in the kidney and liver seems to alleviate the tissue damage and facilitate the recovery. Its expression in the sperm, thymus and brain suggests its potential roles in these organs in spite of the apparently normal null phenotype. Although AQP12 null mice appear normal, they suffer from severe pancreatitis, suggesting its role in the fusion of zymogen granules.

General significance

As many issues are unsolved, the clarification of the function and roles of the superaquaporin may lead to the identification of new roles of AQPs. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Aquaporins.     

Three distinct roles of aquaporin-4 in brain function revealed by knockout mice

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is expressed in astrocytes throughout the central nervous system, particularly at the blood-brain and brain-cerebrospinal fluid barriers. Phenotype analysis of transgenic mice lacking AQP4 has provided compelling evidence for involvement of AQP4 in cerebral water balance, astrocyte migration, and neural signal transduction. AQP4-null mice have reduced brain swelling and improved neurological outcome in models of (cellular) cytotoxic cerebral edema including water intoxication, focal cerebral ischemia, and bacterial meningitis. However, brain swelling and clinical outcome are worse in AQP4-null mice in models of vasogenic (fluid leak) edema including cortical freeze-injury, brain tumor, brain abscess and hydrocephalus, probably due to impaired AQP4-dependent brain water clearance. AQP4 deficiency or knock-down slows astrocyte migration in response to a chemotactic stimulus in vitro, and AQP4 deletion impairs glial scar progression following injury in vivo. AQP4-null mice also manifest reduced sound- and light-evoked potentials, and increased threshold and prolonged duration of induced seizures. Impaired K⁺ reuptake by astrocytes in AQP4 deficiency may account for the neural signal transduction phenotype. Based on these findings, we propose modulation of AQP4 expression or function as a novel therapeutic strategy for a variety of cerebral disorders including stroke, tumor, infection, hydrocephalus, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury.     

Three distinct roles of aquaporin-4 in brain function revealed by knockout mice

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is expressed in astrocytes throughout the central nervous system, particularly at the blood-brain and brain-cerebrospinal fluid barriers. Phenotype analysis of transgenic mice lacking AQP4 has provided compelling evidence for involvement of AQP4 in cerebral water balance, astrocyte migration, and neural signal transduction. AQP4-null mice have reduced brain swelling and improved neurological outcome in models of (cellular) cytotoxic cerebral edema including water intoxication, focal cerebral ischemia, and bacterial meningitis. However, brain swelling and clinical outcome are worse in AQP4-null mice in models of vasogenic (fluid leak) edema including cortical freeze-injury, brain tumor, brain abscess and hydrocephalus, probably due to impaired AQP4-dependent brain water clearance. AQP4 deficiency or knock-down slows astrocyte migration in response to a chemotactic stimulus in vitro, and AQP4 deletion impairs glial scar progression following injury in vivo. AQP4-null mice also manifest reduced sound- and light-evoked potentials, and increased threshold and prolonged duration of induced seizures. Impaired K+ reuptake by astrocytes in AQP4 deficiency may account for the neural signal transduction phenotype. Based on these findings, we propose modulation of AQP4 expression or function as a novel therapeutic strategy for a variety of cerebral disorders including stroke, tumor, infection, hydrocephalus, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury.     

Aquaporin-4 deletion in mice reduces brain edema after acute water intoxication and ischemic stroke

Cerebral edema contributes significantly to morbidity and death associated with many common neurological disorders. However, current treatment options are limited to hyperosmolar agents and surgical decompression, therapies introduced more than 70 years ago. Here we show that mice deficient in aquaporin-4 (AQP4), a glial membrane water channel, have much better survival than wild-type mice in a model of brain edema caused by acute water intoxication. Brain tissue water content and swelling of pericapillary astrocytic foot processes in AQP4-deficient mice were significantly reduced. In another model of brain edema, focal ischemic stroke produced by middle cerebral artery occlusion, AQP4-deficient mice had improved neurological outcome. Cerebral edema, as measured by percentage of hemispheric enlargement at 24 h, was decreased by 35% in AQP4-deficient mice. These results implicate a key role for AQP4 in modulating brain water transport, and suggest that AQP4 inhibition may provide a new therapeutic option for reducing brain edema in a wide variety of cerebral disorders.     

Novel role of aquaporin-4 in CD4+ CD25+ T regulatory cell development and severity of Parkinson's disease

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is highly expressed in mammalian brains and is involved in the pathophysiology of cerebral disorders, including stroke, tumors, infections, hydrocephalus, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury. We found that AQP4-deficient mice were hypersensitive to stimulations such as 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or lipopolysaccharide compared to wild-type (WT) littermates. In a mouse model of MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease (PD), AQP4-deficient animals show more robust microglial inflammatory responses and more severe loss of dopaminergic neurons (DNs) compared with WT mice. However, a few studies have investigated the association of abnormal AQP4 levels with immune dysfunction. Here, for the first time, we report AQP4 expression in mouse thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. Furthermore, the significantly lower numbers of CD4(+) CD25(+) regulatory T cells in AQP4-deficient mice compared to WT mice, perhaps resulting from impaired thymic generation, may be responsible for the uncontrolled microglial inflammatory responses and subsequent severe loss of DNs in the substantia nigra pars compacta in the MPTP-induced PD model. These novel findings suggest that AQP4 deficiency may disrupt immunosuppressive regulators, resulting in hyperactive immune responses and potentially contributing to the increased severity of PD or other immune-associated diseases.     

Lack of aquaporin-4 water transport inhibition by antiepileptics and arylsulfonamides

Inhibitors of brain glial water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) are of potential clinical utility, as they are predicted to modulate brain edema, neuroexcitation and glial scarring. Recently, Huber et al. (Bioorg. Med. Chem.2007, 17, 1270-1273; in press) reported that a series of arylsulfonamides, antiepileptics, and related small molecules strongly inhibited AQP4 water transport with IC(50)s down to 1 microM. We retested the compounds with greatest reported potencies, including acetylsulfanilamide, acetazolamide, 6-ethoxy-benzothiazole-2-sulfonamide, topiramate, zonisamide, phenytoin, lamotrigine, and sumatriptan, in AQP4-transfected mammalian cells and primary cultures of brain glial cells, using several sensitive assays of osmotic water permeability. Contrary to the findings of Huber et al., in our studies we found no significant inhibition of AQP4 water permeability by any of the compounds at concentrations up to 100 microM.     

Aquaporin-4 Mitigates Retrograde Degeneration of Rubrospinal Neurons by Facilitating Edema Clearance and Glial Scar Formation After Spinal Cord Injury in Mice

Atrophy of upper motor neurons hampers axonal regeneration and functional recovery following spinal cord injury (SCI). Apart from the severity of primary injury, a series of secondary pathological damages including spinal cord edema and glial scar formation affect the fate of injured upper motor neurons. The aquaporin-4 (AQP4) water channel plays a critical role in water homeostasis and migration of astrocytes in the central nervous system, probably offering a new therapeutic target for protecting against upper motor neuron degeneration after SCI. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of AQP4 deficiency on atrophy of rubrospinal neurons after unilateral rubrospinal tract transection at the fourth cervical level in mice. AQP4 gene knockout (AQP4^?/?) mice exhibited high extent of spinal cord edema at 72 h after lesion compared with wild-type littermates. AQP4^?/? mice showed impairments in astrocyte migration toward the transected site with a greater lesion volume at 1 week after surgery and glial scar formation with a larger cyst volume at 6 weeks. More severe atrophy and loss of axotomized rubrospinal neurons as well as axonal degeneration in the rubrospinal tract rostral to the lesion were observed in AQP4^?/? mice at 6 weeks after SCI. AQP4 expression was downregulated at the lesioned spinal segment at 3 days and 1 week after injury, but upregulated at 6 weeks. These results demonstrated that AQP4 not only mitigates spinal cord damage but also ameliorates retrograde degeneration of rubrospinal neurons by promoting edema clearance and glial scar formation after laceration SCI. This finding supports the notion that AQP4 may be a promising therapeutic target for SCI.     

Downregulation in aquaporin 4 and aquaporin 8 expression of the colon associated with the induction of allergic diarrhea in a mouse model of food allergy

Food allergies have become increasingly prevalent during the past few decades. Diarrhea is one of the most frequent intestinal symptoms caused by food allergens and is characterized by imbalanced ion exchange and water transfer; however, the underlying mechanism of allergic diarrhea remains unclear. Water transfer across the intestinal epithelial membrane seems to occur via aquaporins (AQPs). However, the molecular mechanism of water transfer and the pathophysiological roles of aquaporins in the intestine have not been fully established. The present studies have focused on the alterations of AQPs in a mouse model of allergic diarrhea in which BALB/c mice developed diarrhea following repeated challenges of orally administered ovalbumin. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis and immunohistochemical technique were used for expression of mRNA and protein of AQPs, respectively. AQP4 and AQP8 mRNA levels were significantly decreased in the proximal colon of allergic mice compared to controls; likewise, expression of AQP4 and AQP8 proteins was reduced in the proximal colon of the allergic mice. These results suggest that allergic diarrhea is associated with a downregulation in AQP4 and AQP8 expression.     

Immunodominant T cell determinants of aquaporin-4, the autoantigen associated with neuromyelitis optica

Autoantibodies that target the water channel aquaporin-4 (AQP4) in neuromyelitis optica (NMO) are IgG1, a T cell-dependent Ig subclass. However, a role for AQP4-specific T cells in this CNS inflammatory disease is not known. To evaluate their potential role in CNS autoimmunity, we have identified and characterized T cells that respond to AQP4 in C57BL/6 and SJL/J mice, two strains that are commonly studied in models of CNS inflammatory diseases. Mice were immunized with either overlapping peptides or intact hAQP4 protein encompassing the entire 323 amino acid sequence. T cell determinants identified from examination of the AQP4 peptide (p) library were located within AQP4 p21-40, p91-110, p101-120, p166-180, p231-250 and p261-280 in C57BL/6 mice, and within p11-30, p21-40, p101-120, p126-140 and p261-280 in SJL/J mice. AQP4-specific T cells were CD4+ and MHC II-restricted. In recall responses to immunization with intact AQP4, T cells responded primarily to p21-40, indicating this region contains the immunodominant T cell epitope(s) for both strains. AQP4 p21-40-primed T cells secreted both IFN-γ and IL-17. The core immunodominant AQP4 21-40 T cell determinant was mapped to residues 24-35 in C57BL/6 mice and 23-35 in SJL/J mice. Our identification of the AQP4 T cell determinants and characterization of its immunodominant determinant should permit investigators to evaluate the role of AQP4-specific T cells in vivo and to develop AQP4-targeted murine NMO models.     

Changes in retinal aquaporin-9 (AQP9) expression in glaucoma

The eye contains numerous water channel proteins and the roles of AQPs (aquaporins) in the retina are blurred, especially under disease conditions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the expression of AQP9 gene and proteins affected by elevated IOP (intraocular pressure) in a rat model of glaucoma induced by intravitreous injection of hypertonic saline into the episcleral veins. The gene and protein expressions of AQP9 were investigated by real-time PCR and Western blotting. The immunoreactive expression of AQP9, AQP4 and GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) in the optic nerve of rats exposed to experimentally elevated IOP was detected by immunofluorescence microscopy. The mRNA and protein expression levels of AQP9 were up-regulated in the retina of an animal model of glaucoma. The immunoreactivities of the AQP9, AQP4 and GFAP were also detected and increased in the optic nerve region. The expression of AQP9 was up-regulated in this glaucoma model and the immunoreactivities of the AQP4 and GFAP were also detected as co-localizing with AQP9 in the optic nerve region, indicating retina ganglion cells were surrounded by activated astrocytes. This may indicate that the injured neurons may rely on the astrocytes. The alterations of AQP expression may compensate the glaucomatous damage.     

Implications of the aquaporin-4 structure on array formation and cell adhesion

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is the predominant water channel in the mammalian brain and an important drug target for treatment of cerebral edema, bipolar disorder and mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. We determined the AQP4 structure by electron crystallography of double-layered, two-dimensional (2D) crystals. The structure allows us to discuss how the expression ratio between the long and short AQP4 splicing variant can determine the size of in vivo orthogonal arrays. Furthermore, AQP4 contains a short 3(10) helix in an extracellular loop, which mediates weak but specific interactions between AQP4 molecules in adjoining membranes. This finding suggests a previously unexpected role for AQP4 in cell adhesion. This notion was corroborated by expression of AQP4 in L-cells, which resulted in clustering of the cells. Our AQP4 structure thus enables us to propose models for the size regulation of orthogonal arrays and channel-mediated cell adhesion.     

The expression of water channel proteins during human salivary gland development: a topographic study of aquaporins 1, 3 and 5

Some members of aquaporin family (AQP) plays crucial functions in salivary synthesis and secretion. These proteins expression has already been reported during salivary gland formation, however no previous studies in human developing glands have been performed. We evaluated AQP1, 3 and 5 expression through the stages of human salivary gland morphogenesis and discuss the possible role of AQP for glandular maturation. Human salivary glands derived from foetuses aged between 14 and 25 weeks were submitted to immunohistochemistry. At the bud stage, membrane expression of AQP1, 3 and 5 were observed within the epithelial bud cells presenting a similar apicolateral pattern, also found at the pseudoglandular stage, present within the terminal portions of future acini, while AQP5 was also particularly strong at the apical membrane of pre-acinar and pre-ductal cells. AQP5 was co-localised with Cytokeratin 7. Similar AQP1, 3 and 5 expression were observed at the following canalicular stage, where distinct and strongly luminal and acinar AQP5 expression is present. During the final terminal bud stage, AQP1 was only identified in serous acini, myoepithelial and endothelial cells, while differentiated mucous acinar cells and ducts were negative. AQP3 was detected at apicolateral membranes of both mucous and serous acini. AQP5 also showed a diffuse expression in mucous and serous acini, in addition to strong apical membrane expression within lumen of intercalated ductal cells. This topographic analysis of AQP1, 3 and 5 revealed differences in the expression pattern throughout salivary gland developmental stages, suggesting different roles for each protein in human glandular maturation.     

Defective secretion of saliva in transgenic mice lacking aquaporin-5 water channels.

Aquaporin-5 (AQP5) is a water-selective transporting protein expressed in epithelial cells of serous acini in salivary gland. We generated AQP5 null mice by targeted gene disruption. The genotype distribution from intercross of founder AQP5 heterozygous mice was 70:69:29 wild-type:heterozygote:knockout, indicating impaired prenatal survival of the null mice. The knockout mice had grossly normal appearance, but grew approximately 20% slower than litter-matched wild-type mice when placed on solid food after weaning. Pilocarpine-stimulated saliva production was reduced by more than 60% in AQP5 knockout mice. Compared with the saliva from wild-type mice, the saliva from knockout mice was hypertonic (420 mosM) and dramatically more viscous. Amylase and protein secretion, functions of salivary mucous cells, were not affected by AQP5 deletion. Water channels AQP1 and AQP4 have also been localized to salivary gland; however, pilocarpine stimulation studies showed no defect in the volume or composition of saliva in AQP1 and AQP4 knockout mice. These results implicate a key role for AQP5 in saliva fluid secretion and provide direct evidence that high epithelial cell membrane water permeability is required for active, near-isosmolar fluid transport.     

Neuregulins in Glial Cells

The role of growth factors in controlling the development of glial cells in both the peripheral and central nervous systems has been investigated for a number of years. The recent discovery of a new family of growth factors termed the neuregulins (NRGs) has led to an explosion of information concerning the putative role of these growth factors in the development of Schwann cells (SC), oligodendrocytes (OLG), and astrocytes. Many of these previous studies have focused on the effects of exogenous NRGs on glial cell development and differentiation. We now review the evidence that these glial cells themselves produce NRGs and discuss the major implications of these findings with respect to glial cell development and diseases which affect glial cell function. We also discuss the potential role of endogenous NRGs following neural injury.