Isolation and characterization of cyclic AMP-independent glycogen synthase kinase from rat skeletal muscle

Glycogen synthase kinase was isolated from rat skeletal muscle. This kinase, which is cyclic nucleotide-independent and calcium-independent, was separated from phosphorylase kinase, cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and phosvitin kinase by phosphocellulose chromatography. Gel filtration on Sephadex G-100 resolved the glycogen synthase kinase into two fractions with apparent molecular weights of 68 000 (peak I) and 52 000 (peak II). This step also separated glycogen synthase kinase from the catalytic subunit of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase, which had an apparent molecular weight of 39 000. Peak II glycogen synthase kinase activity was not affected by the addition of calcium, EGTA or a number of cyclic nucleotides. In addition to ATP, dATP would serve as the phosphate donor. Other trinucleotides tested were either poor or ineffective substrates. Activity was about 5-fold greater with Mg2+ than with Mn2+. Glycogen stimulated activity about 25%. Modifications of the methods of Soderling et al. ((1970) J. Biol. Chem. 245, 6317--6328) and Nimmo et al. ((1976) Eur. J. Biochem. 68, 21--30) were developed for purification of glycogen synthease (UDPglucose:glycogen 4-alpha D-glucosyltransferase, EC 2.4.1.11) to specific activity of 35 units/mg of protein. Using this preparation of glycogen synthase as substrate, the phosphorylation and inactivation catalyzed by glycogen synthase kinase was compared to that catalyzed by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase or phosphorylase kinase. Each of the kinases had different specificities for phosphorylation sites on glycogen synthase.     

Total conversion of glycogen synthase from the I- to the D-form by a cyclic AMP-independent protein kinase from rabbit skeletal muscle.

A newly discovered cyclic AMP-independent protein kinase, which catalyzes the total conversion of glycogen synthase from the I- to the D-form, has been isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle. This enzyme, designated glycogen synthase kinase, is separable from cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase by column chromatography on phosphocellulose. Synthase kinase and cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase are distinct in their specificity for protein substrates, the effects of cyclic AMP and the inhibitor of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase on their activities, and the extent to which they phosphorylate I-form glycogen synthase. The phosphorylation of I-form enzyme by synthase kinase results in the incorporation of 4 mol of phosphate/85,000 subunit; however only two of the phosphate sites seem predominantly to determine glucose-6-P dependence. The resulting multiply phosphorylated enzyme, which is highly dependent on glucose-6 P for activity, has a phosphate content comparable to the D-form enzyme isolated from rabbit muscle.     

The calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase from rabbit skeletal muscle. Purification, subunit structure and substrate specificity

A calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase distinct from phosphorylase kinase has been purified approximately equal to 5000-fold from rabbit skeletal muscle by a procedure involving fractionation with ammonium sulphate (0-33%), and chromatographies on phosphocellulose, calmodulin-Sepharose and DEAE-Sepharose. 0.75 mg of protein was obtained from 5000 g of muscle within 4 days, corresponding to a yield of approximately equal to 3%. The Km for glycogen synthase was 3.0 microM and the V 1.6-2.0 mumol min-1 mg-1. The purified enzyme showed a major protein staining band (Mr 58 000) and a minor component (Mr 54 000) when examined by dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The molecular weight of the native enzyme was determined to be 696 000 by sedimentation equilibrium centrifugation, indicating a dodecameric structure. Electron microscopy suggested that the 12 subunits were arranged as two hexameric rings stacked one upon the other. Following incubation with Mg-ATP and Ca2+-calmodulin, the purified protein kinase underwent an 'autophosphorylation reaction'. The reaction reached a plateau when approximately equal to 5 mol of phosphate had been incorporated per 58 000-Mr subunit. Both the 58 000-Mr and 54 000-Mr species were phosphorylated to a similar extent. Autophosphorylation did not affect the catalytic activity. The calmodulin-dependent protein kinase initially phosphorylated glycogen synthase at site-2, followed by a slower phosphorylation of site-1 b. The protein kinase also phosphorylated smooth muscle myosin light chains, histone H1, acetyl-CoA carboxylase and ATP-citrate lyase. These findings suggest that the calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase may be a enzyme of broad specificity in vivo. Glycogen synthase kinase-4 is an enzyme that resembles the calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase in phosphorylating glycogen synthase (at site-2), but not glycogen phosphorylase. Glycogen synthase kinase-4 was unable to phosphorylate any of the other proteins phosphorylated by the calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase, nor could it phosphorylate site 1 b of glycogen synthase. The results demonstrate that glycogen synthase kinase-4 is not a proteolytic fragment of the calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase, that has lost its ability to be regulated by Ca2+-calmodulin.     

Identification of a calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase in rabbit skeletal muscle, distinct from phosphorylase kinase

A glycogen synthase kinase that is completely dependent on Ca2+ and calmodulin has been identified in mammalian skeletal muscle, and purified approximately 3000-fold by chromatography on phosphocellulose and calmodulin--Sepharose. The presence of 50 mM NaCl in the homogenisation buffer was critical for extraction of the enzyme. The calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase (app. Mr 850 000) is distinct from myosin light-chain kinase and phosphorylase kinase, but phosphorylates the same serine residue on glycogen synthase as phosphorylase kinase. The physiological role of the enzyme is discussed.     

Purification and characterization of two cyclic AMP-independent casein/glycogen synthase kinases from rat liver cytosol

Two cyclic AMP-independent protein kinases (ATP: protein phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.37) (casein kinase 1 and 2) have been purified from rat liver cytosol by a method involving chromatography on phosphocellulose and casein-Sepharose 4B. Both kinases were essentially free of endogeneous protein substrates and capable of phosphorylating casein, phosvitin and I-form glycogen synthase, but were inactive on histone IIA, protamine and phosphorylase b. They were neither stimulated by cyclic AMP, Ca2+ and calmodulin, nor inhibited by the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor protein. The casein and glycogen synthase kinase activities of each enzyme decreased at the same rate when incubated at 50 degrees C. Casein kinase 1 and casein kinase 2 showed differences in molecular weight, sensitivity to KCl, Km for casein and phosvitin and Ka for Mg2+, whereas their Km values for ATP and I-form glycogen synthase were similar. The phosphorylation of glycogen synthase by these kinases correlated with a decrease in the +/- glucose 6-phosphate activity ratio (independence ratio). However, casein kinase 1 catalyzed the incorporation of about 3.6 mol of 32P/85000 dalton subunit, decreasing the independence ratio from 83 to about 15, whereas the phosphorylation achieved by casein kinase 2 was only about 1.9 mol of 32P/850000 dalton subunit, decreasing the independence ratio to about 23. The independence ratio decrease was prevented by the presence of casein but was unaffected by phosphorylase b. These data indicate that casein/glycogen synthase kinases 1 and 2 are different from cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and phosphorylase kinase.     

Stimulation of autophosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle phosphorylase kinase by glycogen synthase on glycogen particles

Glycogen synthase stimulated the autophosphorylation and autoactivation of phosphorylase kinase from rabbit skeletal muscle. This stimulation was additive to that by glycogen and the reaction was dependent on Ca2+. The effect by glycogen synthase was maximum within the activity ratio (the activity of enzyme without glucose-6-P divided by the activity with 10 mM glucose-6-P) of 0.3 and over 0.3 it was rather inhibitory. The results suggest that autophosphorylation of phosphorylase kinase in the presence of glycogen synthase on glycogen particles may be an important regulatory mechanism of glycogen metabolism in skeletal muscle.     

Synergistic phosphorylation of rabbit muscle glycogen synthase by cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and casein kinase I. Implications for hormonal regulation of glycogen synthase

The phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase by casein kinase I is markedly enhanced if the enzyme has previously been phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The presence of phosphate in the primary cAMP-dependent protein kinase sites, sites 1a, 1b, and 2 (serine 7), increases the activity of casein kinase I toward residues in the vicinity of these sites. This synergistic phosphorylation correlates with potent inactivation of the glycogen synthase. Analysis of the NH2 terminus of the enzyme subunit indicated that phosphorylation at serine 7 caused serine 10 to become a preferred casein kinase I site and that phosphoserine can be an important recognition determinant for casein kinase I. This finding can also explain how epinephrine stimulation of skeletal muscle provokes significant increases in the phosphorylation state of serine residues, in particular serine 10, not recognized by cAMP-dependent protein kinase.     

Purification and crystallization of creatine kinase from rabbit skeletal muscle

Crystallization is the primary rate-limiting step in protein structure determination. It has been our experience over approximately 10 years that crystals are obtained in about 20% of the proteins attempted and that only about 10% of these crystals are sufficiently well ordered to permit atomic resolution structure analysis. In attempts to overcome this limitation, we have investigated the effect on crystallization of microheterogeneity in a protein regarded as pure by conventional criteria. Creatine kinase was purified from rabbit skeletal muscle and crystallized from methylpentanediol. The protein appeared to be nearly pure judging by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and high specific activity. The crystals that were obtained were of poor quality, and an extensive survey of precipitants, crystallization conditions, and additives failed to discover conditions from which usable crystals could be obtained. The enzyme was then subjected to a series of further purification steps. After each purification step, the quality of the crystals obtained under almost identical conditions improved. The final purification step was flat-bed isoelectric focusing. Crystals grown from focused creatine kinase are well ordered and diffract to approximately 3-A resolution.     

Purification and characterization of rabbit liver calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase

A rabbit liver cAMP-independent glycogen synthase kinase has been purified 4500-fold to a specific activity of 2.23 mumol of 32P incorporated per min per mg of protein using ion exchange chromatography on DEAE-Sephacel and phosphocellulose, gel filtration chromatography on Sepharose 6B, and affinity chromatography on calmodulin-Sepharose. This synthase kinase, which was completely dependent on the presence of calmodulin (apparent K0.5 = 0.1 microM) and calcium for activity, also catalyzed the phosphorylation of purified smooth muscle myosin light chain but not of smooth muscle myosin. Using 0.5 mM ATP, a maximal rate of phosphorylation of glycogen synthase was achieved in the presence of 10 mM magnesium acetate with a pH optimum of 7.8. Gel filtration experiments indicated a Stokes radius of about 70 A and sucrose density gradient centrifugation data gave a sedimentation coefficient of 10.6 S. A molecular weight of approximately 300,000 was calculated. A definitive subunit structure was not determined, but major bands observed after polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate corresponded to a doublet at 50,000 to 53,000. The calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase incorporated about 1 mol of 32P per mol of synthase subunit into sites 2 and 1b associated with a decrease in the synthase activity ratio from 0.8 to about 0.4. The calmodulin-dependent glycogen synthase kinase may mediate the effects of alpha-adrenergic agonists, vasopressin, and/or angiotensin II on glycogen synthase in liver.     

Primary structure of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase deduced from cDNA clones

The complete amino acid sequence of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase was deduced from cDNA clones with a composite length of 3317 bp. An mRNA of 3.6 kb was identified by Northern blot analysis of rabbit skeletal muscle RNA. The mRNA coded for a protein of 734 residues with a molecular weight of 83,480. The deduced NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal sequences corresponded to those reported for the purified protein, indicating the absence of any proteolytic processing. At the nucleotide level, the 5' untranslated and coding regions were 79 and 90% identical for rabbit and human muscle glycogen synthases, whereas the 3' untranslated regions were significantly less similar. The enzymes had 97% amino acid sequence identity. Interestingly, the NH2 and COOH termini of rabbit and human muscle glycogen synthase, the regions of phosphorylation, showed the greatest sequence variation (15 of 19 mismatches and two insertion/deletion events), which may indicate different evolutionary constraints in the regulatory and catalytic regions of the molecule.     

The phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase by glycogen synthase kinase-2 and adenosine-3':5'-monophosphate-dependent protein kinase.

Purified glycogen synthase is contaminated with traces of two protein kinases that can phosphorylate the enzyme. One is protein kinase dependent on adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) and the second is an activity termed glycogen synthase kinase-2 [Nimmo, H.G. and Cohen P, (1974)]. Glycogen synthase kinase-2 has been found to be localized relatively specifically in the protein-glycogen complex. It has been purified 4000-fold by two procedures, both of which involve disruption of the complex, followed by the DEAE-cellulose and phosphocellulose chromatographies. However the salt concentration at which glycogen synthase kinase-2 is eluted from DEAE-cellulose depends on the method that is used to disrupt the complex. The results indicate that glycogen synthase kinase-2 is firmly attached to a protein component of the complex. The isolation procedures separate glycogen synthase kinase-2 from phosphorylase kinase, cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and other glycogen-metabolising enzymes. Glycogen synthase kinase-2 is the major phosvitin kinase in skeletal muscle, although glycogen synthase is a six to eight-fold better substrate than phosvitin under the standard assay conditions. Phosphorylase kinase and phosphorylase b are not substrates for glycogen synthase kinase 2. Following incubation with cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase, cyclic AMP and Mg-ATP, the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase reaches a plateau at 1.0 molecules of phosphate incorporated per subunit and the activity ratio measured in the absence and presence of glucose 6-phosphate falls from 0.8 to a plateau of 0.18. The Ka for glucose 6-phosphate of this phosphorylated species, termed glycogen synthase b1, is the 0.6 mM. Following incubation with glycogen synthase kinase-2 and Mg-ATP, the phosphorylation reaches a plateau of 0.92 molecules of phosphate incorporated per subunit and the activity ratio decreases to a plateau of 0.08. The Ka for glucose 6-phosphate of this phosphorylated species, termed glycogen synthetase b2, is 4 mM. In the presence of both cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase and glycogen synthase kinase-2, the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase reaches a plateau when 1.95 molecules of phoshophate have been incorporated per subunit. The activity ratio is 0.01 and the Ka for glucose 6-phosphate is 10 mM. The results indicate that glycogen synthase can be regulated by two distinct phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycles. The implication of these findings for the regulation of glycogen synthase in vivo are discussed.     

Phosphorylation of K-casein by glycogen synthase kinase-3 from rabbit skeletal muscle

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (ATP:protein phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.37) phosphorylated K-casein 20-fold more rapidly than beta-casein, while alpha S1-casein was not a substrate. This distinguished it from casein kinase-I and casein kinase-II, which phosphorylate the beta-casein variant preferentially. Glycogen synthase kinase-3 phosphorylated a serine residue(s) in the C-terminal cyanogen bromide fragment on K-casein. In contrast, cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylated the N-terminal fragment, and phosphorylase kinase the N-terminal and intermediate cyanogen bromide fragments. The results emphasize the potential value of casein phosphorylation as a means of classifying protein kinases.     

Purification and some properties of rabbit skeletal muscle fructose 6-phosphate kinase inhibitor.

The loss of activity of rabbit skeletal muscle FPK on storage and its restoration by ATP, AMP and cyclic AMP has prompted us to look for an inhibitory unit of the enzyme. We have purified this inhibitory factor from the crude muscle extract and isolated from crystalline FPK; both proteins have the same Mw of about 68,000 (SDS). Carboxymethylation revealed species of lower molecular weight. It is suggested that two different kinds of FPK exist, one composed only of "active" subunits and another composed only of "inactive" (inhibitor) subunits. States of intermediate activity exist, created by dissociation, reassociation and exchange of subunits, because the inhibitor and FPK share several subunits. A model is proposed where one or several inhibitors of molecular mass 68,000 replace the corresponding number of active subunits of 93,000 daltons, the structure of the native molecule remaining tetrameric. It is shown that cyclic AMP exerts its activation function on FPK only in the presence of the inhibitory protein, probably by displacing the exchange of the subunit in favor of the active tetrameric species of 360,000. Ammonium chloride plays probably an opposite role in this exchange. The inhibitor coverts the Michaelian behavior with respect to F-6-P into a cooperative response (sigmoidal shape of the curve) characterized by a Hill coefficient of 2. The Michaelian response with respect to ATP is preserved, the corresponding constant being only slightly affected. In the presence of subsaturating concentration of inhibitor, mixed species are detected. As a first approximation one can propose that a reversible equilibrium exists between free and complex FPK subunits. The dissociation constant of this equilibrium being equal to 4 X 10(-8) M in moles of FPK protomers.     

Phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase 1 by the cAMP dependent protein kinase,the cAMP independent synthase kinase and the phosvitin kinase from human polymorphonuclear leukocytes

Summary cAMP dependent protein kinase and cAMP independent synthase kinase incorporated up to two P_i/subunit in rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase I. The first P_i/subunit was incorporated much faster than the second. After incorporation of one Pi/subunit by the CAMP dependent protein kinase, the ratio of independence (RI) was 0.20 and the dissociation constant K_c for Glc-6-P was 0.3 mm, and quite different from the RI of 0.02 and K_c (Glc-6-P) of 1 mM, obtained when one P_i/subunit was incorporated by the cAMP independent synthase kinase. Within the first P_i/subunit, the cAMP dependent protein kinase predominantly phosphorylated in the trypsin sensitive region (60–70%), corresponding to two trichloro-acetic acid soluble tryptic phosphopeptides, termed site-1 and site-2. Site-2 was found to be phosphorylated prior to site-1. CNBr degradation resolved the phosphorylated regions in two phosphopeptides with M_r 28,000 and 10,000.The larger CNBr phosphopeptides were derived from the trypsin sensitive region. Within the first P_i/subunit, synthase kinase almost exclusively phosphorylated in the trypsin insensitive region (80%) corresponding to the smaller CNBr phosphopeptide. However, when two P_i/subunit were incorporated by either the cAMP dependent protein kinase or the synthase kinase the phosphates were almost equally distributed between the trypsin sensitive and insensitive regions and K_c (Glc-6-P) increased to 2 mm, Maximum phosphorylation (2.8–3.3 P_i/subunit and K_c (Glc-6-P) 9–11 mm) was only obtainable when both the cAMP dependent protein kinase and the synthase kinase were present.The phosvitin kinase very slowly incorporated one P_i/subunit.We suggest that within the first P₁subunit phosphorylation in the trypsin insensitive region determine the affinity for the allosteric activator, glucose-6-phosphate. Thereafter phosphorylation in the trypsin sensitive region is the major determinant. Purified glycogen-free rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase binds glycogen with lower affinity than polymorphonuclear leukocyte glycogen synthase. Glycogen was found to increase the initial rate of phosphorylation and facilitate the phosphorylation of site-1.Abbreviations cAMP adenosine cyclic 3:5-monophosphate - Glc-6-P glucose-6-phosphate - UDP-Glc uridine 5-diphosphoglucose - EGTA ethylene glycol-bis(-aminoethylether)-N,N-tetraacetic acid - EDTA ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid - CNBr cyanogen bromide - DTT dithiothreitol - SDS sodium dodecyl sulphate - RI ratio of independence     

Heparin inhibition and polyamine stimulation of a glycogen synthase kinase (PC0.7) from rabbit skeletal muscle

Molecular motion of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene embedded in intact guinea pig alveolar macrophage membranes was investigated by using techniques of nanosecond timeresolved fluorescence anisotropy measurements in the temperature range of 0–50 °C, and as a function of benzyl alcohol concentration. It was shown that molecular arrangement and microheterogeneity of the hydrocarbon region surrounding 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene molecules are dependent on the temperature and benzyl alcohol concentration. The lipid orientation order parameter, S_v, showed a discontinuity in the temperature range 12–40 °C, which may indicate a phase transition. N-Formylmethionylphenylalanine-stimulated production of O₂^? from macrophages increased with temperature parallel with changes in S_v. Benzyl alcohol decreases the magnitude of the lipid order parameter at all temperatures studied. In the same concentration range of benzyl alcohol, stimulated O₂^? production by macrophages was inhibited. These data show the complex relationship between lipid integrity in macrophage membranes and a physiological function of these cells. In addition, the results indicate that benzyl alcohol influences the integrity of both the protein and lipid hydrophobic regions of the membrane.