Amino acids are general growth inhibitors of Nicotiana silvestris in tissue culture

The growth of Nicotiana silvestris in suspension culture is inhibited by all of the common protein amino acids at the millimolar level, except for L-glutamine. A defined experimental system for growth/inhibition studies has been established, and growth studies were carried out with cells that had been maintained in the exponential growth phase for at least 10 generations (EE cells). The following results were obtained after particularly detailed studies with aromatic amino acids. The onset of inhibition was preceded by a duration of normal growth rate which varied within a range of 12 to 48 h. The degree of inhibition was directly proportional to amino acid concentration and inversely related to the initial cell density of the inoculum. A slowed, but still exponential rate of growth persisted during an early phase of inhibition. Under sufficiently severe conditions, this was followed by progressive diminution of growth rate and eventual lysis. The most drastic inhibitory effects caused by aromatic amino acids were in the order: phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine. When EE cells cultivated under conditions of growth inhibition were diluted into fresh medium, immediate resumption of growth at the uninhibited rate occurred and persisted. On the other hand, when growth-inhibited EE cells were diluted into medium containing the same concentration of amino acid used in the first round of growth, an initial burst of uninhibited growth lasting about 24 h was followed by a drastic, progressively declining growth rate which deteriorated to cell death and lysis. When cells in stationary phase were used as an inoculum, as is done in typical growth characterizations with suspension cultures, the sensitivity to inhibition during the subsequent exponential growth phase was several-fold greater than was the case with EE cells. Hypotheses that growth inhibition might be caused by ammonia toxicity, keto-acid toxicity, or by inhibition of nitrate utilization were ruled out. Observations that provide new insight are: (i)growth-inhibited cells undergo drastic plasmolysis, (ii) L-glutamine is an effective antagonist of amino-acid inhibitors, and (iii) growth-inhibited cells exhibit a transient restoration of normal growth rate upon dilution into fresh growth medium. These results implicate a linkage of amino acids with osmotic regulation and nitrogen metabolism.     

Physiological and biochemical characterization of a suspensionculture system for sustained exponential growth of Nicotiana silvestris

A strong approach to understanding the regulation of enzymes in metabolic pathways, such as those responsible for amino acid biosynthesis, is to follow enzyme levels throughout the growth curve of higher plant cells in suspension culture. The rise and fall of enzyme levels can be traced as a function of physiological stage of growth Subculturing, as typically carried out by low-factor dilution of stationary phase cells, yields a system suitable for the study of changes in enzyme and metabolite levels that accompany the transition from stationary-phase physiology to exponential-phase physiology. However, the short duration of exponential growth in such subculture protocols is inadequate to avoid carryover effects from previous stationary-phase physiology. Suspension cultures of Nicotiana silvestris Speg, et Comes (2N = 24) were used to demonstrate substantial carryover levels of acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase and protease activities. A subculture routine is described for maintaining cell populations in exponential phase indefinitely. About 10 generations of sustained exponential growth is required to approach a true balanced state of exponential growth. Such exponential phase populations consist of cells termed EE cells. EE-cell populations were similar to cells that have been in exponential phase for only a few generations (E cells), with respect to doubling time (about 40 h) and to minimal density of diluted populations able to resume growth (about 500 cells ml^?1). EE cells possess a high content of soluble protein; they are smaller and more aggregated than are E cells. Upon dilution into fresh medium, EE cells resume exponential growth without a lag. In contrast to E cells, EE cells exhibit properties of balanced growth, since proportionate increases in cell number, dry weight, wet weight and packed-cell volume were observed. E cells, sampled at different elapsed times of growth, are likely to differ in metabolite, enzyme and cell properties, whereas EE cells exhibit near-constant properties.     

Functional analysis of the essential bifunctional tobacco enzyme 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase in transgenic tobacco plants

In plants, the shikimate pathway occurs in the plastid and leads to the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids. The bifunctional 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DHD/SHD) catalyses the conversion of dehydroquinate into shikimate. Expression of NtDHD/SHD was suppressed by RNAi in transgenic tobacco plants. Transgenic lines with <40% of wild-type activity displayed severe growth retardation and reduced content of aromatic amino acids and downstream products such as cholorogenic acid and lignin. Dehydroquinate, the substrate of the enzyme, accumulated. However, unexpectedly, so did the product, shikimate. To exclude that this finding is due to developmental differences between wild-type and transgenic plants, the RNAi approach was additionally carried out using a chemically inducible promoter. This approach revealed that the accumulation of shikimate was a direct effect of the reduced activity of NtDHD/SHD with a gradual accumulation of both dehydroquinate and shikimate following induction of gene silencing. As an explanation for these findings the existence of a parallel extra-plastidic shikimate pathway into which dehydroquinate is diverted is proposed. Consistent with this notion was the identification of a second DHD/SHD gene in tobacco (NtDHD/SHD-2) that lacked a plastidic targeting sequence. Expression of an NtDHD/SHD-2-GFP fusion revealed that the NtDHD/SHD-2 protein is exclusively cytosolic and is capable of shikimate biosynthesis. However, given the fact that this cytosolic shikimate synthesis cannot complement loss of the plastidial pathway it appears likely that the role of the cytosolic DHD/SHD in vivo is different from that of the plastidial enzyme. These data are discussed in the context of current models of plant intermediary metabolism.     

Partial purification and some properties of shikimate dehydrogenase from tomatoes

The partial purification of shikimate dehydrogenase (SDH) from tomato fruit was achieved by precipitation with ammonium sulphate, and chromatography on DEAE-cellulose and hydroxyapatite. The enzyme has a MW of 73000, shows an optimum at pH 9.1 and K_m values of 3.8 × 10^?5 M and 1.0 × 10^?5 M with shikimic acid and NADP as substrates. NADP could not be replaced by NAD. The tomato enzyme is competitively inhibited by protocatechuic acid with a K_i value of 7.7 × 10^?5 M. On the other hand, cinnamic acid derivatives and 2-hydroxybenzoic acid were ineffective. At 50° for 5 min the SDH is inactivated by 85%. The activity was inhibited by pCMB and N-ethylmaleimide, suggesting a requirement for SH groups. The inactivation plot of oxidation by pCMB was biphasic, and NADP decreased the reactivity of sulphydryl groups to the reagent. The activation energy was found to be 14.2kcal/mol. The properties of the SDH are discussed in relation to the enzymes from other sources.     

Activities of enzymes of amino-acid metabolism in Pennisetum seedlings grown in the presence of 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid

The plant growth regulator 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (CEPA) slightly inhibited the elongation of growth in Pennisetum typhoides seedlings, but greatly stimulated the activity of alanine aminotransferase (GPT), asparate aminotransferase (GOT), as well as glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH).     

Enzyme activities in Pennisetum seedlings germinated in the presence of abscisic and gibberellic acids

Effects of abscisic acid (ABA) and gibberellic acid (GA₃), alone and in combination, on growth and activity of alanine aminotransferase (GPT), aspartate aminotransferase (GOT), and glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH) were studied in aerial parts of Pennisetum typhoides seedlings. ABA inhibited growth and activity of GLDH, but stimulated the activity of GPT and weakly that of GOT. GA₃, on the other hand, did not affect the activity of any of the enzymes tested, but in combination with ABA tended to antagonise the efrect of the latter.     

Purification and Properties of NADP-Dependent Shikimate Dehydrogenase from Gluconobacter oxydans IFO 3244 and Its Application to Enzymatic Shikimate Production

NADP-Dependent shikimate dehydrogenae (SKDH, EC 1.1.1.25) was purified from Gluconobacter oxydans IFO 3244. SKDH showed a single protein band on native-PAGE accompanying enzyme activity. It required NADP exclusively and catalyzed only the shuttle reaction between shikimate and 3-dehydroshikimate. The optimum pH for shikimate oxidation and 3-dehydroshikimate reduction was found at pH 10 and 7 respectively. SKDH proved to be a useful catalyst for shikimate production from 3-dehydroshikimate.     

Isolation and characterisation of a full-length genomic clone encoding a plastidic glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase from Nicotiana tabacum

We describe here the isolation and characterisation of the first full-length genomic clone encoding a plant glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH; EC 1.1.1.49) from Nicotiana tabacum L. cv Samsun. The gene was expressed in all tissues, including roots, leaves, stems and flowers. Comparison of the gene with other known plant G6PDH cDNAs grouped this sequence with plastidic isoforms. The protein, minus a putative plastidic transit sequence, was overexpressed in Escherichia coli as a glutathione S-transferase fusion protein. The resulting protein was shown to be immunologically related to the potato plastidic G6PDH. This suggests that the sequence described here codes for a plastidic isoform. Plastidic G6PDH mRNA was induced in both roots and leaves in response to KNO₃, and the induction in roots was approximately 4 times the response seen in leaves. Sequence analysis of the 5′-untranslated region of the genomic clone indicated the presence of several NIT2 elements, which may contribute to the control of the expression of this gene. Plastidic G6PDH mRNA levels did not appear to respond to light. Received: 28 April 2000 / Accepted: 21 July 2000     

Regulation of 2-oxoglutarate metabolism in rat liver by NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase and aspartate aminotransferase

Kinetic and regulatory properties of NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP-IDH) and aspartate aminotransferase (AsAT) responsible for 2-oxoglutarate metabolism in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of rat liver were studied. Based on the subcellular location of these enzymes and their kinetic parameters (Km, Ksi) obtained with highly purified enzyme preparations, it is suggested that synthesis of 2-oxoglutarate should be mainly determined by cytoplasmic NADP-IDH (86% of the total activity in the cell), whereas its utilization should depend on cytoplasmic AsAT (78% of the total activity). AsAT from the rat liver was specified by substrate inhibition and also by changes in the enzyme affinity for the substrates under the influence of some intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle: isocitrate, succinate, fumarate, and citrate. Key intermediates of nitrogen metabolism (glutamate, glutamine, and aspartate) are involved in the regulation of NADP-IDH and AsAT. These enzymes are regulated oppositely, and the catalytic activity of one enzyme can be stimulated concurrently with a decrease in the activity of the other. Obviously, carbon and nitrogen metabolism in the rat liver can be controlled through redistribution of 2-oxoglutarate between different metabolic processes via regulatory mechanisms influencing differently located forms of NADP-IDH and AsAT.     

Redesign of the substrate specificity of Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase to that of Escherichia coli tyrosine aminotransferase by homology modeling and site-directed mutagenesis.

Although several high-resolution X-ray crystallographic structures have been determined for Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase (eAATase), efforts to crystallize E. coli tyrosine aminotransferase (eTATase) have been unsuccessful. Sequence alignment analyses of eTATase and eAATase show 43% sequence identity and 72% sequence similarity, allowing for conservative substitutions. The high similarity of the two sequences indicates that both enzymes must have similar secondary and tertiary structures. Six active site residues of eAATase were targeted by homology modeling as being important for aromatic amino acid reactivity with eTATase. Two of these positions (Thr 109 and Asn 297) are invariant in all known aspartate aminotransferase enzymes, but differ in eTATase (Ser 109 and Ser 297). The other four positions (Val 39, Lys 41, Thr 47, and Asn 69) line the active site pocket of eAATase and are replaced by amino acids with more hydrophobic side chains in eTATase (Leu 39, Tyr 41, Ile 47, and Leu 69). These six positions in eAATase were mutated by site-directed mutagenesis to the corresponding amino acids found in eTATase in an attempt to redesign the substrate specificity of eAATase to that of eTATase. Five combinations of the individual mutations were obtained from mutagenesis reactions. The redesigned eAATase mutant containing all six mutations (Hex) displays second-order rate constants for the transamination of aspartate and phenylalanine that are within an order of magnitude of those observed for eTATase. Thus, the reactivity of eAATase with phenylalanine was increased by over three orders of magnitude without sacrificing the high transamination activity with aspartate observed for both enzymes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

High-resolution structure of shikimate dehydrogenase from Thermotoga maritima reveals a tightly closed conformation

Shikimate dehydrogenase (SDH), which catalyses the NADPH-dependent reduction of 3-dehydroshikimate to shikimate in the shikimate pathway, is an attractive target for the development of herbicides and antimicrobial agents. Structural analysis of a SDH from Thermotoga maritima encoded by the Tm0346 gene was performed to facilitate further structural comparisons between the various shikimate dehydrogenases. The crystal structure of SDH from T. maritima was determined at 1.45 Å by molecular replacement. SDH from T. maritima showed a monomeric architecture. The overall structure of SDH from T. maritima comprises the N-terminal α/β sandwich domain for substrate binding and the C-terminal domain for NADP binding. When the T. maritima SDH structure was compared with those of the SDHs from other species, the SDH from T. maritima was in a tightly closed conformation, which should be open for catalysis. Notably, α7 moves toward the active site (∼5 Å), which forces the SDH of T. maritima in a more closed form. Four ammonium sulfate (AMS) ions were identified in the structure. They were located in the active site and appeared to mimic the role of the substrate in terms of the enzyme activity and stability. The new high resolution structural information reported in this study, including the AMS binding sites as a potent inhibitor binding site of SDHs, is expected to supplement the existing structural data and will be useful for structure-based antibacterial discovery against SDHs.     

Metabolic responses in discrete regions of rat brain following acute administration of glutamate

Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain. Nevertheless, high extracellular levels of this amino acid have been shown to be toxic to several neuronal populations, but no data are available to show how glutamate homeostasis is altered in response to local infusion of glutamate. In the present study, 1 M of glutamate was stereotactically injected into cerebral cortex, striatum, and hippocampus of adult rat brain, and the activities of key metabolic enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase were evaluated by postmortem analysis in tissue homogenates. The results show that glutamate bolus, induced significant alterations in vivo glutamate and energy metabolism, as evidenced by marked alterations in these enzyme activities, whereas dizocilpine, a glutamate receptor antagonist, negated many of the effects induced by high glutamate. However, the degree of involvement of these observations in glutamate-induced neurotoxicity remains to be ascertained.     

Regulation of mitochondrial NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase in rat heart during ischemia

The changes in the regulation of at mitochondrial NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP-ICDH) in a rat heart during have been analysed. Increase of enzyme activity in the cytosol and mitochondria of the heart ischemia was detected. Catalytic properties of the mitochondrial NADP-ICDH at norm and pathology have been compared on homogeneous enzyme preparations. Enzyme from the normoxic and ischemic heart showed the same electrophoretical mobility and molecular mass. Enzyme isolated from the ischemic heart mitochondria demonstrated higher activation energy and lower thermal stability. NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase at the normoxic and ischemic conditions exhibited different K_m for substrates and regulatory behaviour in relation to ATP, ADP, 2-oxoglutarate, citrate, malate, reduced and oxidised glutathione. The inhibitory effect of the Fe²⁺ and H₂O₂ mixture associated with the generation of hydroxyl radicals was lower in the ischemic enzyme. We hypothesise that the specific features of regulation behaviour of NADP-ICDH from the ischemic tissues permits the enzyme to supply NADPH to the glutathione reductase/glutathione peroxidase system.