高密度脂蛋白受体在胆固醇逆行转运中的作用

本文综述了近两三年来HDL受体及其在胆固醇逆行转运过程中作用的研究进展,着重讨论了肝外细胞及肝组织细胞HΓL受体介导胆固醇转移的机理。     

鼠脑少突胶质细胞三碘甲腺原氨酸（T＿3）受体的─过性表达

本实验采用三碘甲腺原氨酸（Ｔ３）核受体单抗和半乳糖脑苷酯（ＧＣ）多抗的双抗体免疾细胞化学法,观察了体外次生培养的大鼠脑少突胶质细胞成熟过程中核Ｔ３受体的表达。结果发现核Ｔ３受体主要存在于未成熟的少突胶质细胞中（阳性率约８０％）,而在成熟的少突胶质细胞中仅占４４％。这一现象可能是甲状腺激素在脑成熟过程中具有一段关键作用时期的分子机理之一。     

雄激素受体分子病理学研究进展

雄激素受体分子病理学研究进展陈光椿卢建（第二军医大学病理生理学教研室,上海２００４３３）关键词雄激素受体（ＡＲ）雄激素主要是指睾丸Ｌｅｙｄｉｇ细胞合成、分泌的睾酮（Ｔ）及其在靶细胞内的活性代谢产物——双氢睾酮（ＤＨＴ）。后者的作用是前者的３倍。雄激素...     

c-di-AMP——细菌中第二信使的研究进展

环二腺苷酸(cyclic diadenylate monophosphate,c-di-AMP)是新发现的在细菌中广泛存在的一类重要的第二信使。c-di-AMP不仅与细菌的生长、细胞壁的代谢平衡、生物被膜的形成等密切相关,还在真核宿主细胞抗感染的固有免疫中发挥重要作用。主要从c-di-AMP的合成酶与降解酶、c-di-AMP在病原菌中的结合蛋白以及c-di-AMP与宿主细胞互作过程中的相关受体蛋白等几方面进行综述。     

质子感知受体与肿瘤发生和肿瘤转移之间的关系

G蛋白偶联受体家族卵巢癌G蛋白偶联受体1（ovarian cancer G protein-coupled receptor 1, OGR1）亚家族的OGR1、T细胞死亡偶联基因8（T－cell death associated gene 8, TDAG8）、G 蛋白偶联受体4（G protein－coupled receptor 4, GPR4）及诱导细胞停滞于G2/M期的G蛋白偶联受体G2A（from G2 accumulation）4 种受体是最新发现的一类质子感知受体.除了质子,体内又有它们各自特定的脂质分 子配体活化这些受体来调节细胞机能.该类受体广泛分布于人的各种正常组织和肿瘤 组织细胞中,在肿瘤的发生与转移、细胞骨架重组等生理病理过程中发挥双重作用. 正常表达时它们有一定的抑制肿瘤作用,但这些受体的异常表达或过表达使某些组织 和细胞恶性转化,导致肿瘤的发生.本文综述了在肿瘤组织的酸性微环境中,细胞表 达的质子（pH）感知受体对肿瘤发生与肿瘤转移的调节作用及其相关的信号通路.     

治疗动脉粥样硬化的靶位:A类清道夫受体

动脉粥样硬化性心血管疾病是危害人类健康的常见疾病之一。A类清道夫受体是动脉粥样硬化发生和发展过程中的主要参与者之一,介导巨噬细胞内吞修饰的低密度脂蛋白,形成泡沫细胞,有明显的致动脉粥样硬化作用,是治疗动脉粥样硬化的潜在靶点。另外A类清道夫受体还参与机体的防御过程。重点综述了A类清道夫受体各成员结构及其在动脉粥样硬化中的生理作用和在新药研发方面的应用与展望。     

动脉粥样硬化早期病变过程CD36的表达与oxLDL的摄取作用

清道夫受体CD36最初被认为是一种血小板膜糖蛋白和一种血栓反应蛋白受体(TSP-1)。近来,CD36也被认为是单核细胞产生的活性氮物质修饰的低密度脂蛋白(LDL)的主要受体,参与包括动脉粥样硬化(AS)在内的许多病理生理过程。该文介绍CD36的生物学特性及其在巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞形成和AS形成中的作用,以及CD36表达的调控机制。     

研究: 脂联素经肝X受体α途径对RAW 264.7巨噬细胞ABCG1表达的影响

泡沫细胞形成是动脉粥样硬化发生的关键环节,胆固醇逆转运可以防止泡沫细胞形成,ATP结合盒转运体G1(ATP-binding cassette transporter G1,ABCG1)在胆固醇逆转运中起着很重要的作用,可将细胞内胆固醇转运至高密度脂蛋白(high density lipoprotein,HDL)．肝X受体α (liver X receptor α,LXRα)可通过调节其靶基因ABCG1的表达来调控胆固醇逆转运．脂联素有很广泛的心血管保护作用,但对RAW 264.7巨噬细胞ABCG1表达的影响尚不清楚．为了研究脂联素对RAW 264.7巨噬细胞ABCG1表达的影响及其机制,采用实时荧光定量PCR、蛋白质印迹法检测ABCG1和LXRα的表达,使用液体闪烁计数仪检测胆固醇流出率,并利用siRNA干扰技术抑制LXRα的表达来研究LXRα在脂联素调节ABCG1中的作用．结果表明,脂联素浓度依赖性和时间依赖性地上调ABCG1和LXRα的mRNA和蛋白质的表达,促进巨噬细胞胆固醇流出．经LXRα siRNA处理后,脂联素上调ABCG1的作用消失,胆固醇流出率也相应减少．上述结果提示,脂联素经LXRα途径促进RAW 264.7巨噬细胞ABCG1表达和胆固醇流出,防止泡沫细胞形成,减轻动脉粥样硬化．     

巨噬细胞胆固醇转运相关蛋白研究进展

动脉粥样斑块中泡沫细胞的形成与巨噬细胞胆固醇的转运密切相关,巨噬细胞胆固醇转运是胆固醇逆转运中的一个重要过程,它可清除外周组织过多的胆固醇,对维持细胞内胆固醇稳定、延缓动脉粥样硬化的发生发展有着重要意义.这个过程涉及到许多转运相关蛋白的作用,如三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体A1/G1、载脂蛋白A-Ⅰ、胆固醇脂转运蛋白、卵磷脂胆固醇酰基转移酶等.本文就巨噬细胞胆固醇转运过程中相关蛋白的作用做一综述,以期为动脉粥样硬化相关疾病的防治研究提供新的思路.     

植物病毒长距离转运的分子机理

植物病毒侵入寄主细胞后,其局部侵染和系统侵染的形成涉及病毒在植物体内二种不同的转运模式:经过叶肉细胞胞间连丝来实现的胞间转运(cel-to-cell movement)和经过植物维管系统的韧皮部筛管来实现的长距离转运(long-distance transport)[1].近十年来对胞间转运的大量研究,尤其是对TMV在烟草叶肉细胞间转运机理的出色研究,使人们逐步明晰了病毒胞间转运的一些基本步骤及转运机理,建立起了植物病毒胞间转运机理研究的基本模式[2-5].与此同时,因病毒的长距离转运是其实现系统侵染的关键过程,人们对病毒长距离转运机理的研究也积累了相当多的工作,该方面的研究日益成为植物病毒学研究的一个重要内容.本文拟对病毒长距离转运过程中所涉及的病毒因子、病毒-寄主的互作及病毒进出韧皮部筛分子的可能方式作一概述.     

Lipid homeostasis and the formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic, inflammatory disorder characterized by the deposition of excess lipids in the arterial intima. The formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in a plaque is a hallmark of the development of atherosclerosis. Lipid homeostasis, especially cholesterol homeostasis, plays a crucial role during the formation of foam cells. Recently, lipid droplet-associated proteins, including PAT and CIDE family proteins, have been shown to control the development of atherosclerosis by regulating the formation, growth, stabilization and functions of lipid droplets in macrophage-derived foam cells. This review focuses on the potential mechanisms of formation of macrophage-derived foam cells in atherosclerosis with particular emphasis on the role of lipid homeostasis and lipid droplet-associated proteins. Understanding the process of foam cell formation will aid in the future discovery of novel therapeutic interventions for atherosclerosis.     

Vav family Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factors regulate CD36-mediated macrophage foam cell formation

Lipid-laden macrophages or "foam cells" are the primary components of the fatty streak, the earliest atherosclerotic lesion. Although Vav family guanine nucleotide exchange factors impact processes highly relevant to atherogenesis and are involved in pathways common to scavenger receptor CD36 signaling, their role in CD36-dependent macrophage foam cell formation remains unknown. The goal of the present study was to determine the contribution of Vav proteins to CD36-dependent foam cell formation and to identify the mechanisms by which Vavs participate in the process. We found that CD36 contributes to activation of Vav-1, -2, and -3 in aortae from hyperlipidemic mice and that oxidatively modified LDL (oxLDL) induces activation of macrophage Vav in vitro in a CD36 and Src family kinase-dependent manner. CD36-dependent uptake of oxLDL in vitro and foam cell formation in vitro and in vivo was significantly reduced in Vav null macrophages. These studies for the first time link CD36 and Vavs in a signaling pathway required for macrophage foam cell formation.     

A combination of Lox-1 and Nox1 regulates TLR9-mediated foam cell formation

The formation of foam cells is the hallmark of early atherosclerotic lesions, and the uptake of modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL) by macrophage scavenger receptors is thought to be a key process in their formation. In this study, we examined the role of lectin-like oxLDL receptor-1 (Lox-1) and NADPH oxidase 1 (Nox1) in toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-mediated foam cell formation. TLR9 activation of Raw264.7 cells or mouse primary peritoneal macrophages by CpG ODN treatment enhanced Lox-1 gene and protein expression. In addition, CpG ODN-induced Nox1 mRNA expression, which in turn increased foam cell formation. The inhibition of CpG ODN-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by treatment with antioxidants, as well as with knockdown of Nox1 using siRNA, suppressed the formation of foam cells. The induction of Lox-1 and Nox1 by CpG ODN was regulated via the TLR9-p38 MAPK signaling pathway. CpG ODN also increased NFκB activity, and a potent inhibitor of NFκB that significantly blocked CpG-induced Nox1 expression, suggesting that Nox1 regulation is mediated through an NFκB-dependent mechanism. Taken together, these results suggest that a combination of Lox-1 and Nox1 plays a key role in the TLR9-mediated formation of foam cells via the p38 MAPK pathway.     

TRPV1 activation impedes foam cell formation by inducing autophagy in oxLDL-treated vascular smooth muscle cells

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are an important origin of foam cells besides macrophages. The mechanisms underlying VSMC foam cell formation are relatively little known. Activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily 1 (TRPV1) and autophagy have a potential role in regulating foam cell formation. Our study demonstrated that autophagy protected against foam cell formation in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL)-treated VSMCs; activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin rescued the autophagy impaired by oxLDL and activated autophagy–lysosome pathway in VSMCs; activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin impeded foam cell formation of VSMCs through autophagy induction; activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin induced autophagy through AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway. This study provides evidence that autophagy plays an important role in VSMC foam cell formation and highlights TRPV1 as a promising therapeutic target in atherosclerosis.     

Vav protein guanine nucleotide exchange factor regulates CD36 protein-mediated macrophage foam cell formation via calcium and dynamin-dependent processes

Atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease, results in part from the accumulation of modified lipoproteins in the arterial wall and formation of lipid-laden macrophages, known as "foam cells." Recently, we reported that CD36, a scavenger receptor, contributes to activation of Vav-family guanine nucleotide exchange factors by oxidatively modified LDL in macrophages. We also discovered that CD36-dependent uptake of oxidized LDL (oxLDL) in vitro and foam cell formation in vitro and in vivo was significantly reduced in macrophages deficient of Vav proteins. The goal of the present study was to identify the mechanisms by which Vav proteins regulate CD36-dependent foam cell formation. We now show that a Vav-dynamin signaling axis plays a critical role in generating calcium signals in mouse macrophages exposed to CD36-specific oxidized phospholipid ligands. Chelation of intracellular Ca(2+) or inhibition of phospholipase C-γ (PLC-γ) inhibited Vav activation (85 and 70%, respectively, compared with vehicle control) and reduced foam cell formation (approximately 75%). Knockdown of expression by siRNA or inhibition of GTPase activity of dynamin 2, a Vav-interacting protein involved in endocytic vesicle fission, significantly blocked oxLDL uptake and inhibited foam cell formation. Immunofluorescence microscopy studies showed that Vav1 and dynamin 2 colocalized with internalized oxLDL in macrophages and that activation and mobilization of dynamin 2 by oxLDL was impaired in vav null cells. These studies identified previously unknown components of the CD36 signaling pathway, demonstrating that Vav proteins regulate oxLDL uptake and foam cell formation via calcium- and dynamin 2-dependent processes and thus represent novel therapeutic targets for atherosclerosis.     

TGF-β inhibits the uptake of modified low density lipoprotein by human macrophages through a Smad-dependent pathway: a dominant role for Smad-2

The anti-atherogenic cytokine, TGF-β, plays a key role during macrophage foam cell formation by modulating the expression of key genes involved in the control of cholesterol homeostasis. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms underlying these actions of TGF-β remain poorly understood. In this study we examine the effect of TGF-β on macrophage cholesterol homeostasis and delineate the role of Smads-2 and -3 during this process. Western blot analysis showed that TGF-β induces a rapid phosphorylation-dependent activation of Smad-2 and -3 in THP-1 and primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of Smad-2/3 expression showed that the TGF-β-mediated regulation of key genes implicated in the uptake of modified low density lipoproteins and the efflux of cholesterol from foam cells was Smad-dependent. Additionally, through the use of virally delivered Smad-2 and/or Smad-3 short hairpin RNA, we demonstrate that TGF-β inhibits the uptake of modified LDL by macrophages through a Smad-dependent mechanism and that the TGF-β-mediated regulation of CD36, lipoprotein lipase and scavenger receptor-A gene expression was dependent on Smad-2. These studies reveal a crucial role for Smad signaling, particularly Smad-2, in the inhibition of foam cell formation by TGF-β through the regulation of expression of key genes involved in the control of macrophage cholesterol homeostasis.     

Toll-like receptor 4 is up-regulated by mTOR activation during THP-1 macrophage foam cells formation

Macrophage foam cells formation is the most important process in atherosclerotic plaque formation and development. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is one of the important innate immune sensors of endogenous damage signals and crucial for regulating inflammation. Growing evidence indicates that TLR4 plays a very important role in macrophage foam cells formation. However, the underlying mechanisms regulating TLR4 expression in macrophage are not fully understood. In this study, we induced THP-1 macrophage foam cells formation with oxidative modified low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL). We observed that TLR4 mRNA and protein expression were markedly up-regulated, and the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its downstream target p70S6K were promoted during foam cells formation. The mTOR inhibitor rapamycin blocked mTOR phosphorylation and inhibited TLR4 expression induced by ox-LDL. Silencing mTOR, rictor or raptor protein expression by small interfering RNA, also inhibited the up-regulation of TLR4 expression, respectively. Inhibition of mTOR with rapamycin reversed the down-regulation of cellular lipid efflux mediator ABCA1, which resulted from the activation of TLR4 by ligands. These data suggested that TRL4 expression was up-regulated by a mechanism dependent on mTOR signal pathway activation during THP-1 macrophage foam cells formation. Inhibition of ox-LDL induced mTOR activation reduced TLR4 expression, and improved the impaired lipid efflux.     

Statins and foam cell formation: impact on LDL oxidation and uptake of oxidized lipoproteins via scavenger receptors

The uptake of oxidized lipoproteins via scavenger receptors and the ensuing formation of foam cells are key events during atherogenesis. Foam cell formation can be reduced by treatment with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins). The efficacy of statins is evidently due not only to their cholesterol-lowering properties, but also to lipid-independent pleiotropic effects. This review focuses on lipid-independent pleiotropic effects of statins that influence foam cell formation during atherogenesis, with special emphasis on oxidative pathways and scavenger receptor expression.     

SCD1 activation impedes foam cell formation by inducing lipophagy in oxLDL‐treated human vascular smooth muscle cells

The formation of fat‐laden foam cells, which contributes to the fatty streaks in the plaques of atheromas, is an important process in atherosclerosis. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are a critical origin of foam cells. However, the mechanisms that underlie VSMC foam cell formation are not yet completely understood. Here, we demonstrated that oxidized low‐density lipoprotein (oxLDL) inhibited lipophagy by suppressing lipid droplet (LD)‐lysosome fusion and increased VSMC foam cell formation. Moreover, although oxLDL treatment inhibited lysosomal biogenesis, it had no significant effect on lysosomal proteolysis and lysosomal pH. Notably, through TMT‐based quantitative proteomic analysis and database searching, 94 differentially expressed proteins were identified, of which 54 were increased and 40 were decreased in the oxLDL group compared with those in the control group. Subsequently, SCD1, a protein of interest, was further investigated. SCD1 levels in the VSMCs were down‐regulated by exposure to oxLDL in a time‐dependent manner and the interaction between SCD1 and LDs was also disrupted by oxLDL. Importantly, SCD1 overexpression enhanced LD‐lysosome fusion, increased lysosomal biogenesis and inhibited VSMC foam cell formation by activating TFEB nuclear translocation and its reporter activity. Modulation of the SCD1/TFEB‐mediated lipophagy machinery may offer novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of atherosclerosis.