高危型HPV 复制相关蛋白在宫颈组织中的研究

人乳头瘤病毒(Human Papillomavirus,HPV)复制机制的研究,对复制与宫颈病变的相关性可提供重要的依据。HPV是有衣壳包裹的小型环状双链DNA病毒。其基因组可分早期及晚期蛋白编码区和一个调控区。高危型HPV通过E1、E2蛋白及Ori序列启动复制。高危型HPV在宫颈上皮细胞中的复制是分化依赖型的,在高危型HPV感染的成熟的宫颈表皮细胞中,HPV E7蛋白使细胞再次进入增殖分裂期,HPV-DNA得以复制,但同时E7蛋白亦会诱发宿主细胞染色体不稳定,增加癌变风险。由此推理,高危型HPV的复制与宫颈癌的发病有一定相关性。目前有学者对高危型HPV的复制机制,复制与致癌的关系方面正开展相关研究。     

真核细胞染色体DNA复制起始及复制叉稳定性维持的机制

在真核生物中,DNA复制在染色体上特定的多位点起始．当细胞处在晚M及G1期,多个复制起始蛋白依次结合到DNA复制源,组装形成复制前复合体．pre．RC在Gl-S的转折期得到激活,随后,多个直接参与DNA复制又形成的蛋白结合到DNA复制源,启动DNA的复制,形成两个双向的DNA复制又．在染色体上,移动的DNA复制又经常会碰到复制障碍（二级DNA结构、一些蛋白的结合位点、损伤的碱基等）而暂停下来,此时,需要细胞周期检验点的调控来稳定复制叉,否则,会导致复制又垮塌及基因组不稳定．本文就真核细胞染色体DNA复制起始的机制,以及复制又稳定性的维持机制进行简要综述．     

真核生物DNA复制起始调控

复制起始调控是真核生物复制调控机制的重要环节,也是细胞生长调控的核心问题．对SV40病毒和酵母体系的研究为阐明真核生物的复制起始机制及其与细胞周期的关系提供了线索．目前,与DNA复制起始有关的多种蛋白质因子（如核蛋白P₁,DNA单链结合蛋白,DNA聚合酶α,增殖细胞核抗原等）的作用机理逐渐明朗,周期依赖的调控特点得到了证实文章着重介绍了DNA复制起始在细胞周期中的两个调控点及各种周期蛋白在该点的作用,文中还涉及复制起始异常与肿瘤发生的关系.     

肺炎链球菌CcrZ蛋白在细胞周期调控中的作用

为了维持基因组稳定性,细胞在增殖过程中不仅需要对细胞周期各事件(DNA复制、DNA分离和细胞分裂)进行单独调控,还要将这些事件彼此协调起来。在细菌中, DNA复制起始和细胞分裂分别由复制起始蛋白DnaA和细胞分裂体(divisome)蛋白FtsZ负责,然而这两个过程的协调机制少有报道。最近在肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae)中发现一种细胞周期时空调节子CcrZ,其具有三个功能:(1)激活DnaA依赖的复制起始;(2)参与后期细胞分裂体的组装;(3)通过将Z环(Z-ring)适时定位在细胞中央以使DNA复制和细胞分裂相协调。基于CcrZ的结构和保守性,该文综述了以CcrZ为代表的多种蛋白调控DNA复制起始、Z环组装和定位的机制,并展望了多细胞周期事件协调子在相关领域的应用前景。     

高危型人乳头瘤病 E2蛋白功能研究进展

高危型人乳头瘤病毒(Human papillomavirus,HPV)是诱发宫颈癌,肛门癌,外阴癌及部分头颈癌等多种肿瘤的主要原因。在病毒生命周期过程中,HPV E2蛋白通过与病毒自身及宿主基因组DNA及蛋白相作用,在病毒基因转录调控、病毒DNA的复制和维持中起到关键作用,其还对宿主细胞转录、RNA加工、凋亡、泛素化及胞内转运等多种活动产生影响,为病毒增殖创造有利的宿主细胞环境,并在HPV致病过程中发挥重要作用。为了解E2蛋白的各种功能及其与病毒和宿主DNA和蛋白作用情况、HPV病毒生活史、HPV病毒致病和致癌机制的研究均有着重要的意义。细致描述E2蛋白的功能可以帮助我们寻找病毒相关疾病治疗的新方法。本文以HPV16为重点,对高危型HPV E2蛋白结构、功能和活性相关研究的进展进行了综述。     

病毒酶的研究及其进展

病毒的主要生物学特性之一是只有一种类型的核酸为其基因组(RNA或DNA),并必须在活细胞中增殖。虽然病毒复制需要细胞组分参与,但病毒基因编码的酶在病毒复制中的作用已日益受到重视。各种不同的病毒具有不同的病毒酶,包括复制核的酶、整合人细胞染色体的整合酶、引发(priming)DNA     

流行性乙型脑炎病毒GSS株prM、E和NS1蛋白基因的克隆及在非复制型痘苗病毒中的表达

克隆流行性乙型脑炎(乙脑)病毒野毒(JEV)GSS株前膜蛋白信号序列、前膜蛋白(prM)、包膜蛋白(E)、非结构蛋白-1(NSl)和非结构蛋白NS2a的编码基因,并与非复制型痘苗病毒载体NTV进行同源重组,构建了乙脑病毒非复制型重组痘苗病毒疫苗株NTVA(E／L)JEV。通过：PCR和Southern blot检测证明,在非复制型痘苗病毒中有乙暗病毒prM信号序列、prM、E、NS1和NS2a基因的插入：Western blot检测证明,重组病毒可以在细胞内成功地表达prM、E和NSl蛋白,并可将prM、E和NSl蛋白分泌到细胞培养上清中;免疫荧光检测证明,E和NSl蛋白主要分布在细胞膜上。电镜下可见分泌到细胞外的病毒样颗粒。     

CRL4在增殖的肝细胞系中上调乙型肝炎病毒抗原的分泌表达

乙型肝炎病毒（hepatitis B virus,HBV）编码的X蛋白（hepatitis B virus X protein,HBx）对HBV感染的起始和维持至关重要。HBx可能作为病毒来源的接头分子,介导Cullin-RING E3泛素连接酶4（cullin-RING ubiquitin E3 ligase 4,CRL4）复合物对染色体外DNA限制因子SMC5/6的降解。最近研究发现CRL4接头分子DNA损伤结合蛋白1（DNA damage-binding protein 1,DDB1）可不依赖与HBx的相互作用而直接上调病毒的表达和复制。本研究基于HBx基因删除（X-null）的HBV重组cccDNA（recombinant covalently closed circular DNA,rcccDNA）模型系统,在多种体外培养肝细胞系中证实上述发现。有意思的是,CRL4刺激rcccDNA^X-null转染细胞抗原分泌表达的效应能被血清饥饿实验抵消。应用尾静脉高压注射小鼠模型,同样发现CRL4并不上调rcccDNA^X-null在非增殖小鼠肝脏细胞中的表达。以上结果提示,细胞增殖特征与CRL4不依赖HBx上调病毒抗原表达的效应密切相关,有助于HBx生物学意义的准确分析和理解。     

大肠杆菌TorS/TorR二组分体应答蛋白TorR对DNA复制起始的影响

二组分体作为一种信号转导系统在细菌中普遍存在,能够感知外界环境变化并做出应答。细菌中CckA/CtrA、ArcA/ArcB和PhoP/PhoQ二组分体与DNA复制起始和细胞分裂相关,但目前还未见TorS/TorR二组分体对细胞周期及DNA复制影响的相关报道。大肠杆菌TorS/TorR二组分体能够监测细胞周围氧化三甲胺(Trimethylamine oxide, TMAO)的浓度变化,但其是否影响DNA复制起始呢?文章利用流式细胞仪检测了ΔtorS和ΔtorR突变体菌株的复制式样。结果发现,ΔtorS突变菌株每个细胞复制起始原点数目和倍增时间与野生型细胞一致,而ΔtorR突变菌株每个细胞复制起始原点数目多于野生型细胞,说明复制起始发生时间比野生型细胞早。但是过表达TorR蛋白或者共同表达TorS和TorR蛋白都不能使ΔtorR突变体表型恢复为野生型表型。而在野生型和ΔtorR突变细胞中过表达SufD蛋白能使复制起始提早发生,在ΔtorR和ΔsufD双突变细胞中复制起始延迟。所以,TorR可能通过改变sufD基因的表达来间接影响染色体复制起始。     

YfiA、Rmf和Hpf影响大肠杆菌DNA复制起始

探讨核糖体休眠因子yfiA、rmf和hpf对大肠杆菌DNA复制起始的影响。观察ΔyfiA、Δrmf和Δhpf基因缺失突变体的DNA复制式样、细胞倍增时间、细胞大小等表型变化,并使用温度敏感性实验和蛋白定量实验探究yfiA、rmf和hpf对DNA复制起始的作用机理。结果发现,相较于野生型细胞,ΔyfiA、Δrmf和Δhpf突变体出现DNA复制起始的延迟、细胞倍增时间延长、细胞体积减小等表型变化。温度敏感性试验表明YfiA、RMF和HPF蛋白不是直接通过与DnaA、DnaB或DnaC蛋白相互作用来影响DNA复制起始。蛋白定量实验表明它们可能是通过减少细胞内总蛋白的量,包括DnaA蛋白,使细菌的代谢和生长速度减慢,从而导致细菌DNA复制起始发生延迟、细胞倍增时间延长和体积减小等表型改变。这为深入研究yfiA、rmf和hpf的功能提供基础。     

Genomic instability of the host cell induced by the human papillomavirus replication machinery

Development of invasive cervical cancer upon infection by 'high-risk' human papillomavirus (HPV) in humans is a stepwise process in which some of the initially episomal 'high-risk' type of HPVs (HR-HPVs) integrate randomly into the host cell genome. We show that HPV replication proteins E1 and E2 are capable of inducing overamplification of the genomic locus where HPV origin has been integrated. Clonal analysis of the cells in which the replication from integrated HPV origin was induced showed excision, rearrangement and de novo integration of the HPV containing and flanking cellular sequences. These data suggest that papillomavirus replication machinery is capable of inducing genomic changes of the host cell that may facilitate the formation of the HPV-dependent cancer cell.     

Detection of template strand switching during initiation and termination of DNA replication of porcine circovirus

Nucleotide substitution mutagenesis was conducted to investigate the importance of the inverted repeats (palindrome) at the origin of DNA replication (Ori) of porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1). Viral genomes with engineered mutations on either arm or both arms of the palindrome were not impaired in protein synthesis and yielded infectious progeny viruses with restored or new palindromes. Thus, a flanking palindrome at the Ori was not essential for initiation of DNA replication, but one was generated inevitably at termination. Among the 26 viruses recovered, 16 showed evidence of template strand switching, from minus-strand genome DNA to palindromic strand DNA, during biosynthesis of the Ori. Here I propose a novel rolling-circle "melting-pot" model for PCV1 DNA replication. In this model, the replicator Rep protein complex binds, destabilizes, and nicks the Ori sequence to initiate leading-strand DNA synthesis. All four strands of the destabilized inverted repeats exist in a "melted" configuration, and the minus-strand viral genome and a palindromic strand are available as templates, simultaneously, during initiation or termination of DNA replication. Inherent in this model is a "gene correction" or "terminal repeat correction" mechanism that can restore mutilated inverted-repeat sequences to a palindrome at the Ori of circular DNAs or at the termini of circularized linear DNAs. Potentially, the melted state of the inverted repeats increases the rate of noncomplementary or illegitimate nucleotide incorporation into the palindrome. Thus, this melting-pot model provides insight into the mechanisms of DNA replication, gene correction, and illegitimate recombination at the Ori of PCV1, and it may be applicable to the replication of other circular DNA molecules.     

Transient replication of human papillomavirus DNAs.

Information on papillomavirus DNA replication has primarily derived from studies with bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV-1). Our knowledge of DNA replication of the human papillomaviruses (HPVs) is quite limited, in part because of the lack of a cell culture system capable of supporting the stable replication of HPV DNA. This study demonstrates that the full-length genomic DNAs of HPV types 11 and 18 (HPV-11 and HPV-18), but not HPV-16, are able to replicate transiently after transfection into several different human squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. This system was used to identify the viral cis and trans elements required for DNA replication. The viral origins of replication were localized to a region of the viral long control region. Like BPV-1, E1 and E2 were the only viral factors required in trans for the replication of plasmids containing the origin. Cotransfection of a plasmid expressing the E1 open reading frame (ORF) from HPV-11 with a plasmid that expresses the E2 ORF from HPV-6, HPV-11, HPV-16, or HPV-18 supported the replication of plasmid DNAs containing the origin regions of HPV-11, HPV-16, or HPV-18, indicating that there are functions shared among the corresponding E1 and E2 proteins and origins of these viruses. Although HPV-16 genomic DNA did not replicate by itself under experimental conditions that supported the replication of HPV-11 and HPV-18 genomic DNAs, expression of the HPV-16 early region functions from a strong heterologous promoter supported the replication of a cotransfected plasmid containing the HPV-16 origin of replication. This finding suggests that the inability of the HPV-16 genomic DNA to replicate transiently in the cell lines tested was most likely due to insufficient expression of the viral E1 and/or E2 genes required for DNA replication.     

Functional analysis of a carboxyl-terminal phosphorylation mutant of the bovine papillomavirus E1 protein

The papillomavirus E1 protein is essential for viral DNA replication, and phosphorylation of E1 appears to regulate protein function and DNA replication. Serine 584 of bovine papillomavirus E1 is in a conserved motif resembling a CK2 consensus site, and is phosphorylated by CK2 in vitro. Mutation of serine 584 to alanine eliminates replication of the viral genome in transient replication assays. Wild-type and mutant E1 proteins were expressed from recombinant baculoviruses and used to assess biochemical functions of the amino acid 584 substitution. Helicase enzyme activity, E1 binding to the viral E2 protein and to cellular DNA polymerase alpha-primase were all unaffected in the mutant protein. Binding of E1 to viral replication origin DNA sequences was reduced in the mutant, but not eliminated. The carboxyl-terminal region of the protein appears to play a role in regulating E1 function, and adds to a complex picture emerging for papillomavirus DNA replication control.     

Long-term episomal maintenance of bovine papillomavirus type 1 plasmids is determined by attachment to host chromosomes, which Is mediated by the viral E2 protein and its binding sites

Papillomavirus genomes are stably maintained as extrachromosomal nuclear plasmids in dividing host cells. To address the mechanisms responsible for stable maintenance of virus, we examined nuclear compartmentalization of plasmids containing the full-length upstream regulatory region (URR) from the bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1) genome. We found that these plasmids are tightly associated with the nuclear chromatin both in the stable cell lines that maintain episomal copies of the plasmids and in transiently transfected cells expressing the viral E1 and E2 proteins. Further analysis of viral factors revealed that the E2 protein in trans and its multiple binding sites in cis are both necessary and sufficient for the chromatin attachment of the plasmids. On the other hand, the BPV1 URR-dependent plasmid replication and chromatin attachment processes are clearly independent of each other. The ability of the plasmids to stably maintain episomes correlates clearly with their chromatin association function. These data suggest that viral E2 protein-mediated attachment of BPV1 genomes to the host cell chromatin could provide a mechanism for the coupling of viral genome multiplication and partitioning to the host cell cycle during viral latent infection.     

Identification of an arginine-rich motif in human papillomavirus type 1 E1;E4 protein necessary for E4-mediated inhibition of cellular DNA synthesis in vitro and in cells

Productive infections by human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are restricted to nondividing, differentiated keratinocytes. HPV early proteins E6 and E7 deregulate cell cycle progression and activate the host cell DNA replication machinery in these cells, changes essential for virus synthesis. Productive virus replication is accompanied by abundant expression of the HPV E4 protein. Expression of HPV1 E4 in cells is known to activate cell cycle checkpoints, inhibiting G(2)-to-M transition of the cell cycle and also suppressing entry of cells into S phase. We report here that the HPV1 E4 protein, in the presence of a soluble form of the replication-licensing factor (RLF) Cdc6, inhibits initiation of cellular DNA replication in a mammalian cell-free DNA replication system. Chromatin-binding studies show that E4 blocks replication initiation in vitro by preventing loading of the RLFs Mcm2 and Mcm7 onto chromatin. HPV1 E4-mediated replication inhibition in vitro and suppression of entry of HPV1 E4-expressing cells into S phase are both abrogated upon alanine replacement of arginine 45 in the full-length E4 protein (E1;E4), implying that these two HPV1 E4 functions are linked. We hypothesize that HPV1 E4 inhibits competing host cell DNA synthesis in replication-activated suprabasal keratinocytes by suppressing licensing of cellular replication origins, thus modifying the phenotype of the infected cell in favor of viral genome amplification.     

Genetic variations in the DNA replication origins of human papillomavirus family correlate with their oncogenic potential

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) encompass a large family of viruses that range from benign to highly carcinogenic. The crucial differences between benign and carcinogenic types of HPV remain unknown, except that the two HPV types differ in the frequency of DNA replication. We have systematically analyzed the mechanism of HPV DNA replication initiation in low-risk and high-risk HPVs. Our results demonstrate that HPV-encoded E2 initiator protein and its four binding sites in the replication origin play pivotal roles in determining the destiny of the HPV-infected cell. We have identified strain-specific single nucleotide variations in E2 binding sites found only in the high-risk HPVs. We have demonstrated that these variations result in attenuated formation of the E2-DNA complex. E2 binding to these sites is linked to the activation of the DNA replication origin as well as initiation of DNA replication. Both electrophoretic mobility shift assay and atomic force microscopy studies demonstrated that binding of E2 from either low- or high-risk HPVs with variant binding sequences lacked multimeric E2-DNA complex formation in vitro. These results provided a molecular basis of differential DNA replication in the two types of HPVs and pointed to a correlation with the development of cancer.