Intracellular delivery of glutathione S-transferase into mammalian cells

Protein transduction domains (PTDs) derived from human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein and herpes simplex virus VP22 protein are useful for the delivery of non-membrane-permeating polar or large molecules into living cells. In the course of our study aiming at evaluating PTD, we unexpectedly found that the fluorescent-dye-labeled glutathione S-transferase (GST) from Schistosoma japonicum without known PTDs was delivered into COS7 cells. The intracellular transduction of GST was also observed in HeLa, NIH3T3, and PC12 cells, as well as in hippocampal primary neurons, indicating that a wide range of cell types is permissive for GST transduction. Furthermore, we showed that the immunosuppressive peptide VIVIT fused with GST successfully inhibits NFAT activation. These results suggest that GST is a novel PTD which may be useful in the intracellular delivery of biologically active molecules, such as small-molecule drugs, bioactive peptides, or proteins.     

Enhanced transport of plant‐produced rabies single‐chain antibody‐RVG peptide fusion protein across an in cellulo blood–brain barrier device

The biomedical applications of antibody engineering are developing rapidly and have been expanded to plant expression platforms. In this study, we have generated a novel antibody molecule in planta for targeted delivery across the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Rabies virus (RABV) is a neurotropic virus for which there is no effective treatment after entry into the central nervous system. This study investigated the use of a RABV glycoprotein peptide sequence to assist delivery of a rabies neutralizing single‐chain antibody (ScFv) across an in cellulo model of human BBB. The 29 amino acid rabies virus peptide (RVG) recognizes the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) at neuromuscular junctions and the BBB. ScFv and ScFv‐RVG fusion proteins were produced in Nicotiana benthamiana by transient expression. Both molecules were successfully expressed and purified, but the ScFv expression level was significantly higher than that of ScFv‐RVG fusion. Both ScFv and ScFv‐RVG fusion molecules had potent neutralization activity against RABVin cellulo. The ScFv‐RVG fusion demonstrated increased binding to nAchR and entry into neuronal cells, compared to ScFv alone. Additionally, a human brain endothelial cell line BBB model was used to demonstrate that plant‐produced ScFv‐RVG^P fusion could translocate across the cells. This study indicates that the plant‐produced ScFv‐RVG^P fusion protein was able to cross the in celluloBBB and neutralize RABV.     

Construction, Overexpression, and Purification of Arthrobacter globiformis Amine Oxidase–Strep-Tag II Fusion Protein

The copper-containing amine oxidase from Arthrobacter globiformis has been expressed and purified as a fusion protein with a C-terminal Strep-tag II peptide. This tag facilitates the rapid purification of the enzyme on a large scale using the StrepTactin POROS medium. For example, we have demonstrated that 50 mg of protein can be obtained in 2 days from 2 L of Escherichia coli. The purified fusion protein displays turnover and spectroscopic properties that are essentially identical to those of the wild-type enzyme. Given the location of the C-terminus in four amine oxidase crystal structures, this strategy should be quite general for the rapid purification of amine oxidases from multiple sources.     

Class II contact‐dependent growth inhibition (CDI) systems allow for broad‐range cross‐species toxin delivery within the Enterobacteriaceae family

Contact‐dependent growth inhibition (CDI) allows bacteria to recognize kin cells in mixed bacterial populations. In Escherichia coli, CDI mediated effector delivery has been shown to be species‐specific, with a preference for the own strain over others. This specificity is achieved through an interaction between a receptor‐binding domain in the CdiA protein and its cognate receptor protein on the target cell. But how conserved this specificity is has not previously been investigated in detail. Here, we show that class II CdiA receptor‐binding domains and their Enterobacter cloacae analog are highly promiscuous, and can allow for efficient effector delivery into several different Enterobacteriaceae species, including Escherichia, Enterobacter, Klebsiella and Salmonella spp. In addition, although we observe a preference for the own receptors over others for two of the receptor‐binding domains, this did not limit cross‐species effector delivery in all experimental conditions. These results suggest that class II CdiA proteins could allow for broad‐range and cross‐species growth inhibition in mixed bacterial populations.     

Efficient preparation and site‐directed immobilization of VHH antibodies by genetic fusion of poly(methylmethacrylate)‐binding peptide (PMMA‐Tag)

A PMMA‐binding peptide (PMMA‐tag) was genetically fused with the C‐terminal region of an anti‐human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) single‐domain antibody (VHH). It was over‐expressed in an insoluble fraction of E. coli cells, and recovered in the presence of 8 M urea via one‐step IMAC purification. Monomeric and denatured PMMA‐tag‐fused VHH (VHH‐PM) was successfully prepared via the reduction and oxidation of VHH‐PM at a concentration less than 1 mg/mL in the presence of 8 M of urea. Furthermore, the VHH‐PM was refolded with a recovery of more than 95% by dialysis against 50 mM TAPS at pH 8.5, because the genetic fusion of PMMA‐tag resulted in a decrease in the apparent isoelectric point (pI) of the fusion protein, and its solubility at weak alkaline pH was considerably increased. The antigen‐binding activities of VHH‐PM in the adsorptive state were 10‐fold higher than that of VHH without a PMMA‐tag. The density of VHH‐PM on a PMMA plate was twice that of VHH, indicating that the site‐directed attachment of a PMMA‐tag resulted in positive effects to the adsorption amount as well as to the orientation of VHH‐PM in its adsorptive state. The preparation and immobilization methods for VHH‐PM against hCG developed in the present study were further applied to VHH‐PMs against four different antigens, and consequently, those antigens with the concentrations lower than 1 ng/mL were detected by the sandwich ELISA. Thus, the VHH‐PMs developed in the present study are useful for preparation of high‐performance and economical immunosorbent for detection of biomarkers. © 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 31:1563–1570, 2015     

In‐solution antibody harvesting with a plant‐produced hydrophobin–Protein A fusion

Purification is a bottleneck and a major cost factor in the production of antibodies. We set out to engineer a bifunctional fusion protein from two building blocks, Protein A and a hydrophobin, aiming at low‐cost and scalable antibody capturing in solutions. Immunoglobulin‐binding Protein A is widely used in affinity‐based purification. The hydrophobin fusion tag, on the other hand, has been shown to enable purification by two‐phase separation. Protein A was fused to two different hydrophobin tags, HFBI or II, and expressed transiently in Nicotiana benthamiana. The hydrophobins enhanced accumulation up to 35‐fold, yielding up to 25% of total soluble protein. Both fused and nonfused Protein A accumulated in protein bodies. Hence, the increased yield could not be attributed to HFB‐induced protein body formation. We also demonstrated production of HFBI–Protein A fusion protein in tobacco BY‐2 suspension cells in 30 l scale, with a yield of 35 mg/l. Efficient partitioning to the surfactant phase confirmed that the fusion proteins retained the amphipathic properties of the hydrophobin block. The reversible antibody‐binding capacity of the Protein A block was similar to the nonfused Protein A. The best‐performing fusion protein was tested in capturing antibodies from hybridoma culture supernatant with two‐phase separation. The fusion protein was able to carry target antibodies to the surfactant phase and subsequently release them back to the aqueous phase after a change in pH. This report demonstrates the potential of hydrophobin fusion proteins for novel applications, such as harvesting antibodies in solutions.     

The Role of Changing Loop Conformations in Streptavidin Versions Engineered for High-affinity Binding of the Strep-tag II Peptide

The affinity system based on the artificial peptide ligand Strep-tag® II and engineered tetrameric streptavidin, known as Strep-Tactin®, offers attractive applications for the study of recombinant proteins, from detection and purification to functional immobilization. To further improve binding of the Strep-tag II to streptavidin we have subjected two protruding loops that shape its ligand pocket for the peptide – instead of D-biotin recognized by the natural protein – to iterative random mutagenesis. Sequence analyses of hits from functional screening assays revealed several unexpected structural motifs, such as a disulfide bridge at the base of one loop, replacement of the crucial residue Trp120 by Gly and a two-residue deletion in the second loop. The mutant m1-9 (dubbed Strep-Tactin XT) showed strongly enhanced affinity towards the Strep-tag II, which was further boosted in case of the bivalent Twin-Strep-tag®. Four representative streptavidin mutants were crystallized in complex with the Strep-tag II peptide and their X-ray structures were solved at high resolutions. In addition, the crystal structure of the complex between Strep-Tactin XT and the Twin-Strep-tag was elucidated, indicating a bivalent mode of binding and explaining the experimentally observed avidity effect. Our study illustrates the structural plasticity of streptavidin as a scaffold for ligand binding and reveals interaction modes that would have been difficult to predict. As result, Strep-Tactin XT offers a convenient reagent for the kinetically stable immobilization of recombinant proteins fused with the Twin-Strep-tag. The possibility of reversibly dissociating such complexes simply with D-biotin as a competing ligand enables functional studies in protein science as well as cell biology.     

Direct visualization of Agrobacterium‐delivered VirE2 in recipient cells

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a natural genetic engineer widely used to deliver DNA into various recipients, including plant, yeast and fungal cells. The bacterium can transfer single‐stranded DNA molecules (T–DNAs) and bacterial virulence proteins, including VirE2. However, neither the DNA nor the protein molecules have ever been directly visualized after the delivery. In this report, we adopted a split‐GFP approach: the small GFP fragment (GFP11) was inserted into VirE2 at a permissive site to create the VirE2‐GFP11 fusion, which was expressed in A. tumefaciens; and the large fragment (GFP1–10) was expressed in recipient cells. Upon delivery of VirE2‐GFP11 into the recipient cells, GFP fluorescence signals were visualized. VirE2‐GFP11 was functional like VirE2; the GFP fusion movement could indicate the trafficking of Agrobacterium‐delivered VirE2. As the natural host, all plant cells seen under a microscope received the VirE2 protein in a leaf‐infiltration assay; most of VirE2 moved at a speed of 1.3–3.1 μm sec^?1 in a nearly linear direction, suggesting an active trafficking process. Inside plant cells, VirE2‐GFP formed filamentous structures of different lengths, even in the absence of T‐DNA. As a non‐natural host recipient, 51% of yeast cells received VirE2, which did not move inside yeast. All plant cells seen under a microscope transiently expressed the Agrobacterium‐delivered transgene, but only 0.2% yeast cells expressed the transgene. This indicates that Agrobacterium is a more efficient vector for protein delivery than T‐DNA transformation for a non‐natural host recipient: VirE2 trafficking is a limiting factor for the genetic transformation of a non‐natural host recipient. The split‐GFP approach could enable the real‐time visualization of VirE2 trafficking inside recipient cells.     

ZEBRA cell‐penetrating peptide as an efficient delivery system in Candida albicans

There is increasing interest in drug delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, and cell‐penetrating peptides, for the development of new antimicrobial treatments. In this study, we investigated the transduction capacity of a carrier peptide derived from the Epstein–Barr virus ZEBRA protein in the pathogenic fungus Candida albicans. ZEBRA‐minimal domain (MD) was able to cross the cell wall and cell membrane, delivering eGFP to the cytoplasm. Uptake into up to 70% of the cells was observed within two hours, without toxicity. This new delivery system could be used in C. albicans as a carrier for different biological molecules including peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids. Thereby, in antifungal therapy, MD may carry promising bioactive fungal inhibitors that otherwise penetrate poorly into the cells. Furthermore, MD will be of interest for deciphering molecular pathways involving cell‐cycle control in yeast or signaling pathways. Short interfering peptides could be internalized using MD, providing new tools for the inhibition of metabolic or signaling cascades essential for the growth and virulence of C. albicans, such as yeast‐to‐hyphae transition, cell wall remodeling, stress signaling and antifungal resistance. These findings create new possibilities for the internalization of cargo molecules, with applications for both treatment and functional analyses.     

A role for host cell exocytosis in InlB‐mediated internalisation of Listeria monocytogenes

The bacterial surface protein InlB mediates internalisation of Listeria monocytogenes into human cells through interaction with the host receptor tyrosine kinase, Met. InlB‐mediated entry requires localised polymerisation of the host actin cytoskeleton. Apart from actin polymerisation, roles for other host processes in Listeria entry are unknown. Here, we demonstrate that exocytosis in the human cell promotes InlB‐dependent internalisation. Using a probe consisting of VAMP3 with an exofacial green fluorescent protein tag, focal exocytosis was detected during InlB‐mediated entry. Exocytosis was dependent on Met tyrosine kinase activity and the GTPase RalA. Depletion of SNARE proteins by small interfering RNA demonstrated an important role for exocytosis in Listeria internalisation. Depletion of SNARE proteins failed to affect actin filaments during internalisation, suggesting that actin polymerisation and exocytosis are separable host responses. SNARE proteins were required for delivery of the human GTPase Dynamin 2, which promotes InlB‐mediated entry. Our results identify exocytosis as a novel host process exploited by Listeria for infection.     

Probing formation of cargo/importin‐α transport complexes in plant cells using a pathogen effector

Importin‐αs are essential adapter proteins that recruit cytoplasmic proteins destined for active nuclear import to the nuclear transport machinery. Cargo proteins interact with the importin‐α armadillo repeat domain via nuclear localization sequences (NLSs), short amino acids motifs enriched in Lys and Arg residues. Plant genomes typically encode several importin‐α paralogs that can have both specific and partially redundant functions. Although some cargos are preferentially imported by a distinct importin‐α it remains unknown how this specificity is generated and to what extent cargos compete for binding to nuclear transport receptors. Here we report that the effector protein HaRxL106 from the oomycete pathogen Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis co‐opts the host cell's nuclear import machinery. We use HaRxL106 as a probe to determine redundant and specific functions of importin‐α paralogs from Arabidopsis thaliana. A crystal structure of the importin‐α3/MOS6 armadillo repeat domain suggests that five of the six Arabidopsis importin‐αs expressed in rosette leaves have an almost identical NLS‐binding site. Comparison of the importin‐α binding affinities of HaRxL106 and other cargos in vitro and in plant cells suggests that relatively small affinity differences in vitro affect the rate of transport complex formation in vivo. Our results suggest that cargo affinity for importin‐α, sequence variation at the importin‐α NLS‐binding sites and tissue‐specific expression levels of importin‐αs determine formation of cargo/importin‐α transport complexes in plant cells.     

A DNA‐promoted amyloid proteinopathy in Escherichia coli

Protein amyloids arise from the conformational conversion and assembly of a soluble protein into fibrilar aggregates with a crossed β‐sheet backbone. Amyloid aggregates are able to replicate by acting as a template for the structural transformation and accretion of further protein molecules. In physicochemical terms, amyloids arguably constitute the simplest self‐replicative macromolecular assemblies. Similarly to the mammalian proteins PrP and α‐synuclein, the winged‐helix dimerization (WH1) domain of the bacterial, plasmid‐encoded protein RepA can assemble into amyloid fibres upon binding to DNA in vitro. Here we report that a hyper‐amyloidogenic functional variant (A31V) of RepA, fused to a red fluorescent protein, causes an amyloid proteinopathy in Escherichia coli with the following features: (i) in the presence of multiple copies of the specific DNA sequence opsp, WH1(A31V) accumulates as cytoplasmatic inclusions segregated from the nucleoid; (ii) such aggregates are amyloid in nature; (iii) bacteria carrying the amyloid inclusions age, exhibiting a fivefold expanded generation time; (iv) before cytokinesis, small inclusions are assembled de novo and transferred to the daughter cells, in which transmission failures cure amyloidosis; and (v) in the absence of inducer DNA, purified cellular WH1(A31V) inclusions seed amyloid fibre growth in vitro from the soluble protein. RepA‐WH1 is a suitable bacterial model system for amyloid proteinopathies.     

Expression of scFv‐Mel‐Gal4 triple fusion protein as a targeted DNA‐carrier in Escherichia Coli

Liver‐directed gene therapy has become a promising treatment for many liver diseases. In this study, we constructed a multi‐functional targeting molecule, which maintains targeting, endosome‐escaping, and DNA‐binding abilities for gene delivery. Two single oligonucleotide chains of Melittin (M) were synthesized. The full‐length cDNA encoding anti‐hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor scFv C1 (C1) was purified from C1/pIT2. The GAL4 (G) gene was amplified from pSW50‐Gal4 by polymerase chain reaction. M, C1 and G were inserted into plasmid pGC4C26H to product the recombinant plasmid pGC‐C1MG. The fused gene C1MG was subsequently subcloned into plasmid pET32c to product the recombinant plasmid C1MG/pET32c and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21. The scFv‐Mel‐Gal4 triple fusion protein (C1MG) was purified with a Ni²⁺ chelating HiTrap HP column. The fusion protein C1MG of roughly 64 kD was expressed in inclusion bodies; 4.5 mg/ml C1MG was prepared with Ni²⁺ column purification. Western blot and immunohistochemistry showed the antigen‐binding ability of C1MG to the cell surface of the liver‐derived cell line and liver tissue slices. Hemolysis testing showed that C1MG maintained membrane‐disrupting activity. DNA‐binding capacity was substantiated by luciferase assay, suggesting that C1MG could deliver the DNA into cells efficiently on the basis of C1MG. Successful expression of C1MG was achieved in E. coli, and C1MG recombinant protein confers targeting, endosome‐escaping and DNA‐binding capacity, which makes it probable to further study its liver‐specific DNA delivery efficacy in vivo. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hypoxia‐induced localization of chemotaxis‐related signaling proteins in Vibrio cholerae

Vibrio cholerae has three sets of chemotaxis‐related signaling proteins, of which only System II has been shown to be involved in chemotaxis. Here, we examined localization of green fluorescent protein (GFP)‐fused components of System I. The histidine kinase (CheA1) and the adaptor (CheW0) of System I localized to polar and lateral membrane regions with standing incubation (microaerobic conditions), but their localization was lost after shaking (aerobic conditions). A transmembrane receptor of System I also showed polar and lateral localization with standing incubation. By contrast, GFP‐fused components of System II localized constitutively to the flagellated pole. Nitrogen gas, sodium azide or carbonylcyanide m‐chlorophenylhydrazone induced localization of CheA1‐GFP even with shaking incubation, suggesting that the localization is controlled in response to changes in energy metabolism. Fluorescently labeled tetracysteine‐tagged CheA1 also showed azide‐induced localization, arguing against artifactual effects of GFP fusions. These results suggest that System I components are assembled into the supramolecular signaling complex in response to reduced cellular energy states, raising the possibility that the System I complex plays a role in sensing and signaling under microaerobic environments, such as in the host intestine.     

Engineering of Escherichia coli for targeted delivery of transgenes to HER2/neu-positive tumor cells

Targeting of non‐phagocytic tumor cells and prompt release of gene cargos upon entry into tumors are two limiting steps in the bacterial gene delivery path. To tackle these problems, the non‐pathogenic Escherichia coli strain BL21(DE3) was engineered to display the anti‐HER2/neu affibody on the surface. After co‐incubation with tumor cells for 3 h, the anti‐HER2/neu affibody‐presenting E. coli strain was selectively internalized into HER2/neu‐positive SKBR‐3 cells. The invasion efficiency reached as high as 30%. Furthermore, the bacteria were equipped with the phage ϕX174 lysin gene E‐mediated autolysis system. Carrying the transgene (e.g., eukaryotic green fluorescent protein, GFP), the tumor‐targeting bacteria were subjected to the thermal shock to trigger the autolysis system upon entry into HER2/neu‐positive cells. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that 3% of infected cells expressed GFP 24 h post thermal induction. Overall, the results show a promise of the proposed approach for developing bacteria as a delivery carrier. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2011; 108:1662–1672. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A novel S3S‐TAP‐tag for the isolation of T‐cell interaction partners of adhesion and degranulation promoting adaptor protein

The identification of modular units of cellular function is a major goal for proteomic research. Protein complexes represent important building blocks defining functionality and deciphering their composition remains a major challenge. Here, we have designed a new tandem affinity purification (TAP) tag (termed S3S‐tag) for the isolation of protein complexes. Specifically, the immune cell protein ADAP that regulates integrin adhesion was fused either C‐ or N‐terminally to the S3S‐tag. After retroviral transduction of a vector containing S3S‐tagged ADAP and internal ribosomal entry site encoded enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP), Jurkat T cells were sorted according to eGFP expression and further selected for expression of TAP‐tagged protein close to endogenous levels. The combination of a cleavable S‐tag and a Strep‐tag II allowed for the isolation of ADAP and associated proteins. Subsequently, stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture‐based mass spectrometric analysis was performed to identify potentially specific interaction partners. Co‐purification of the known interaction partner Src kinase‐associated phosphoprotein of 55 kDa indicates the validity of our approach, while the identification of the ENA/VASP family member EVL, the guanine nucleotide exchange factor GEF‐H1 and the adaptor protein DOCK2 corroborates a link between ADAP‐mediated integrin regulation and the cytoskeleton.     

Analysis of ER Resident Proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: Implementation of H/KDEL Retrieval Sequences

An elaborate quality control system regulates endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis by ensuring the fidelity of protein synthesis and maturation. In budding yeast, genomic analyses and high‐throughput proteomic studies have identified ER resident proteins that restore homeostasis following local perturbations. Yet, how these folding factors modulate stress has been largely unexplored. In this study, we designed a series of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based modules including codon‐optimized epitopes and fluorescent protein (FP) variants complete with C‐terminal H/KDEL retrieval motifs. These conserved sequences are inherent to most soluble ER resident proteins. To monitor multiple proteins simultaneously, H/KDEL cassettes are available with six different selection markers, providing optimal flexibility for live‐cell imaging and multicolor labeling in vivo. A single pair of PCR primers can be used for the amplification of these 26 modules, enabling numerous combinations of tags and selection markers. The versatility of pCY H/KDEL cassettes was demonstrated by labeling BiP/Kar2p, Pdi1p and Scj1p with all novel tags, thus providing a direct comparison among FP variants. Furthermore, to advance in vitro studies of yeast ER proteins, Strep‐tag II was engineered with a C‐terminal retrieval sequence. Here, an efficient purification strategy was established for BiP under physiological conditions.     

Mapping HA‐tagged protein at the surface of living cells by atomic force microscopy

Single‐molecule force spectroscopy using atomic force microscopy (AFM) is more and more used to detect and map receptors, enzymes, adhesins, or any other molecules at the surface of living cells. To be specific, this technique requires antibodies or ligands covalently attached to the AFM tip that can specifically interact with the protein of interest. Unfortunately, specific antibodies are usually lacking (low affinity and specificity) or are expensive to produce (monoclonal antibodies). An alternative strategy is to tag the protein of interest with a peptide that can be recognized with high specificity and affinity with commercially available antibodies. In this context, we chose to work with the human influenza hemagglutinin (HA) tag (YPYDVPDYA) and labeled two proteins: covalently linked cell wall protein 12 (Ccw12) involved in cell wall remodeling in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the β2‐adrenergic receptor (β2‐AR), a G protein‐coupled receptor (GPCR) in higher eukaryotes. We first described the interaction between HA antibodies, immobilized on AFM tips, and HA epitopes, immobilized on epoxy glass slides. Using our system, we then investigated the distribution of Ccw12 proteins over the cell surface of the yeast S. cerevisiae. We were able to find the tagged protein on the surface of mating yeasts, at the tip of the mating projections. Finally, we could unfold multimers of β2‐AR from the membrane of living transfected chinese hamster ovary cells. This result is in agreement with GPCR oligomerization in living cell membranes and opens the door to the study of the influence of GPCR ligands on the oligomerization process. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.