The Early Neolithic site at Hoge Vaart, Almere, the Netherlands, with particular reference to non-diffusion of crop plants, and the significance of site function and sample location

The construction of a new motorway necessitated the excavation of an Early Neolithic site in the Dutch Flevopolder near the Hoge Vaart canal. In 1994-1996, an area of ca. 1700 m² was excavated in 0.5x0.5-m squares. The excavation revealed 150 surface hearths and more than a hundred deep hearth pits. The finds, mainly flint and pottery, as well as¹⁴C dates from charcoal demonstrated that the area had been used mainly during the Early Neolithic (ca. 4900–4500 cal. B.C.). The investigation of the Early Neolithic remains included detailed botanical analyses of 182 samples and hand-sorting by the excavation team, which included archaeobotanists, of tens of thousands of samples sieved over 2-mm-mesh sieves. No remains of cultivated plants were recognised among the 87 taxa (40 identified to species level) that were preserved, mainly in carbonised form. These results are compared with other Early Neolithic sites studied in the Netherlands, such as Swifterbant S3 and Schokland P14. The possible significance of site function and sample location as important factors influencing presence/absence of cultivated plant remains at a particular site is discussed.     

A methodological approach to the study of archaeological cereal meals: a case study at Çatalhöyük East (Turkey)

This paper presents an integrated methodology for the analysis of archaeological remains of cereal meals, based on scanning electronic microscopic analyses of microstructures of charred food fragments from Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey). The remains of cereal foods as ‘bread-like’ or ‘porridge-like’ small charred lumps of various amalgamated plant materials are frequently recovered from Neolithic and later archaeological sites in southwest Asia and Europe. Cereal food remains have recently attracted interest because the identification of their plant contents, the forms of food that they represent and the methods used in their creation can provide unique information about ancient culinary traditions and routine food processing, preparation and cooking techniques. Here, we focus on three methodological aspects: (1) the analysis of their composition; (2) the analysis of their microstructure to determine preparation and cooking processes; (3) the comparison with experimental reference materials. Preliminary results are presented on the botanical composition and cooking processes represented by the charred cereal preparations found at Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey), for example cereals processed into bread, dough and/or porridge.     

李家沟遗址的石器工业

本文介绍河南新密李家沟遗址发现的石制品, 并进行简要讨论。该遗址包含了从旧石器时代晚期一直到新石器时代多个文化阶段的遗存。石器工业在不同文化阶段表现出不同的特点。除了旧石器晚期较早阶段的石片石器组合和旧石器时代晚期之末的细石器组合之外, 还在新石器早期文化乃至裴李岗文化阶段的文化遗存中发现数量较多的打制石器。其中最值得关注的是与典型细石器共存的磨刃石锛与陶片。通过对石制品的初步观察可知, 打制石器并不只存在于旧石器时代, 而是延续到新石器早期甚至可能裴李岗文化时期, 打制石器仍然在继续使用。这种情况说明, 李家沟以及中原地区旧、新石器时代的石器工具的变化过渡是一种逐渐变化的过程。     

Archaeobotanical analysis of some early Neolithic settlements in the Kujawy region, central Poland, with potential plant gathering activities emphasised

Neolithic settlements in the Kujawy region of central Poland are represented by seven archaeological sites which have botanical material archaeologically dated to the Linear Pottery culture (LBK) (ca. 5400-5000 cal. B.C.) and the Lengyel culture (ca. 4400-4000 cal. B.C.). The composition of plant remains suggests that Stipa pennata s.l. played a certain role in the economy of the Neolithic settlers. The presence of this xerothermic grass is best explained by local gathering rather than distant transport or coming into the sediment by chance. The finding of Hierochlo? cf. australis grains represents the first identification of this plant in archaeobotanical material from Poland. This, now rare, plant contains coumarin and for this reason could have been useful in prehistory. Other plants such as Bromus spp., Chenopodium album type, Fallopia convolvulus and Galium spp. were found in large quantities, and although common weeds now, they could also have been collected by the Neolithic settlers. Plants such as Corylus avellana and Vaccinium vitis-idaea that are typically considered to be collected as foods are present in the studied material but in very small quantities. Received September 17, 2001 / Accepted March 13, 2002     

全新世早期中国长江下游地区橡子和水稻的开发利用

最近发掘的浙江上山和小黄山遗址(11400—8000cal BP)是长江下游地区迄今发现最早的村落遗址。这两个遗址均出土有大量磨石, 而有机物遗存保存很少。本文对7件石器进行了淀粉粒、植硅体以及矿物残留物的初步分析, 以便检验这些方法在复原古代生计形态和器物功能研究中的可行性。鉴定出的淀粉粒包括橡子、根茎类、薏苡以及疑似菱角等, 但是没有发现水稻。在发现的水稻植硅体中, 来自茎杆和叶的密度较高, 而来自颖壳的密度较低。矿物分析表明残留物来自工具的使用以及周围的土壤基质。结果显示这些磨石曾经用于加工富含淀粉的植物和制陶用的羼和料。我们认为, 对富含淀粉并且适于长期贮存的植物特别是橡子的大量开发利用是全新世早期长江下游地区生计形态中采集策略的特征。本研究显示了淀粉粒和植硅体分析在古代生计重建中的巨大潜力。对这些遗址残留物的进一步研究将有助于我们更好地理解这一地区从采集经济到定居农耕经济的转变。     

Dietary change and the effects of food preparation on microwear patterns in the Late Neolithic of abu Hureyra, northern Syria

Comparison of the microwear features created on the occlusal surfaces of molar teeth from different cultural horizons at abu Hureyra, northern Syria, indicates that the hardness of the food eaten changed profoundly after the introduction of domestic cereal grains at the beginning of the Neolithic (Neolithic 2A), and again after the introduction of pottery in Neolithic 2C times. Comparison with the microwear features on the teeth of human groups known to eat cooked food demonstrated the identity of the microwear on the abu Hureyra teeth from the pottery levels with those who had eaten cooked food. It is suggested that the evidence for an increase in the population in Neolithic 2C times is a direct consequence of changes in food preparation techniques.     

Early Neolithic agriculture in Ambrona, Provincia Soria, central Spain

The early Neolithic sites of La Lámpara and La Revilla del Campo in the Meseta Norte (Northern Meseta) plateau in central Spain produced evidence for early agriculture from the last third of the 6th millennium B.C. The hulled wheats Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and T. dicoccum (emmer) were identified from carbonised plant remains as well as from imprints in pottery and daub. Single finds of charred remains of Hordeum vulgare (barley), Papaver somniferum/setigerum (poppy) and Linum usitatissimum (linseed) indicated other cultivated crops. The wild plants mainly indicated arable weeds, partly from less fertile soils, and garrigue vegetation from poor pastures. The spectrum of crops from the Ambrona sites was compared to other inner Iberian sites as well as to Mediterranean sites. Sediment samples as well as mineral crusts from graves were analysed from the Neolithic tumulus of La Peña de la Abuela. Its diachronic collective burials had originated from a period of time during the first third of the 4th millennium B.C. Probably no crops, but many green vegetative parts of pine, oak, and juniper had been used as funeral gifts. Oak cupula development indicated early summer activities in the grave-mound. Wickerwork made of willow was used for embedding the dead bodies.     

Neolithic land use in the northern Boreal zone: high-resolution multiproxy analyses from Lake Huhdasjärvi,south-eastern Finland

Two high-resolution pollen and charcoal analyses were constructed from sediments obtained from a small bay in eastern Finland in order to gain information on human activity during the Neolithic Stone Age, 5200–1800 bc. We used measurements of loss on ignition (LOI), magnetic susceptibility and geochemical analyses to describe the sedimentological characteristics. Palaeomagnetic dating and measurements of ¹³⁷Cs-activity were supported by ¹⁴C-datings. The analyses revealed human activity between 4400 and 3200 bc, which is synchronous with archaeological cultures defined through different stages of Comb Ware pottery types and Middle Neolithic pottery types with asbestos as a primary temper. Direct evidence of Hordeum cultivation was dated to 4040–3930 cal bc. According to the pollen data, more significant effort was put into the production of fibres from hemp and lime than the actual cultivation of food.     

Wild fruit use among early farmers in the Neolithic (5400–2300 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>) in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula: an intensive practice?

The archaeobotanical record of 24 sites from the Neolithic period (5400–2300 cal bc) in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula is evaluated. Remarkable amounts of data have recently been obtained for the early and middle Neolithic phases. Most of the studied sites were dry and they only yielded charred plant material. Among dry sites, several types of context were evaluated: dwelling areas, hearths, roasting pits and byres. Material was also analysed from a waterlogged cultural layer of one early Neolithic lakeshore site, La Draga. Quercus sp. (acorns), Corylus avellana L. (hazelnuts), Pistacia lentiscus L. (mastic fruits) and Vitis vinifera L. var. sylvestris (wild grapes) were among the most frequently encountered fruits and seeds. Their presence in the archaeobotanical record clearly maps their past ecological distribution in the region. There are differences observed between the charred dry-land material and the waterlogged uncharred material. Wild fruits were mostly present in an uncharred state in La Draga. Therefore, their consumption could go unnoticed in dry sites when fruits were eaten raw or without roasting. Larger amounts of charred remains of certain wild fruits like acorns and hazelnuts found in mountain areas are highlighted as potential evidence of the regular practice of roasting, potentially indicating regional traditions. All in all, our results support an intensive wild plant use at least during the first 1,300 years of the Neolithic period. Evidence of wild plant food consumption becomes scanty towards the second phase of the middle and the late Neolithic (4th and 3rd millennium cal bc). This, however, might also be due to taphonomic reasons.     

Cultivated plant remains of the late Neolithic Michelsberg Culture at Heilbronn-Klingenberg (southwest Germany) - a comparison of different features, find assemblages and preservation conditions relating to the representation of archaeobotanical remains

A large area investigation was undertaken of the plant remains from a Michelsberg Culture (late Neolithic) settlement. The charred macroscopic remains and imprints in pieces of daub were expected to show both the spectrum of the cultivated plants there, and also the degree of their cultivation and use. The loess covered hill-top lies in a landscape with favourable climatic and soil conditions and is blocked off by two parallel ditches running in an arc. Ditches and pits filled with different sediments were investigated. The daub, unearthed in several pits, had been deliberately mixed with chaff of the glume wheats einkorn and emmer to temper it when it was originally made. The investigated imprints and charred plant remains give hints of spatial distribution of crop processing activities. To determine the amounts of the crops that were cultivated and used, it is necessary to study the charred remains. The degree of ubiquity (frequency of occurrence) of grains in the pit sediments seems to be the best indicator of the representation of cereals. Four main cereals were found: Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum/T. durum and Hordeum vulgare var. nudum. Pisum sativum also was an important cultivated plant, much more than Lens culinaris. The role of Linum usitatissimum and Papaver somniferum is less clear.     

Plant tempering of Predynastic pisé at Adaïma in Upper Egypt: building material and taphonomy

Macroscopic plant remains found in pisé material (clay or mud used in building), used as lining in pits at the Upper Egyptian Predynastic site of Adaïma were investigated. Comparison with assemblages from the sediment fills of these pits and with assemblages from other contexts in the same site demonstrated the taphonomical importance of pisé as a building material for the formation of the sites archaeological sediment. In particular, the influence of the pisé plant temper on the composition of plant assemblages in the sediment fills of the pits was brought to the fore. The choice of specific plant materials for their use as temper in pisé or mud bricks is shown, in particular that of barley (Hordeum vulgare) threshing remains. The importance of cereal processing by-products as construction material is also assessed in a wider economic context and compared with later Egyptian mud brick plant contents.     

Le passage vers l’Atlantique : le processus de néolithisation en Algarve (sud du Portugal)

The late beginning of the research on the neolithisation in the Algarve (southern Portugal) has been providing, as a paradox, excellent conditions for the establishment of interdisciplinary research and the test of working hypotheses. The systematic projects put forward by the University of Algarve permit us today to conclude on a preliminary basis for the formation of a Neolithic enclave at ca. 5500 cal BC, centred in the coastal territories of the region. This enclave is fully Neolithic in economic terms and it is the westernmost extension of the Mediterranean Cardial. However, some specific features of these first Neolithic groups’ artefactual items (such as pottery morphology and style and some technological aspects of chipped stone production) indicate the existence of phenomena of partial reformulation of their material cultures. According to the presently available data, this complex process seems to have occurred in similar traits also in Andalucia and coastal Morocco, that is, at the moment of the passage to the Atlantic. This individualization within the Neolithic of Cardial tradition is the equivalent to the same general cultural phenomena that have been responsible for the formation, for example, of the so-called “Franco-Iberian Cardial” or “Tirrenic Cardial” at the time of settling of the Neolithic groups in these regions.     

Crop growing and gathering in the northern German Neolithic: a review supplemented by new results

New archaeobotanical results from 15 Neolithic sites in northern Germany are presented in a review of the Neolithic plant economy in northern and north-western Europe. Available archaeobotanical data from north-western Europe are evaluated and compared with our new results. In the whole region, barley and emmer were the main crops. Regional and diachronic differences are observed in the cultivation of einkorn, spelt and naked wheat. For oil plants and pulses only rare information from macro remains is available, as we mainly deal with charred material. It is noticeable that gathered plants played an important role in the Funnel Beaker economy. Plant choice, especially the relevance of cultivated versus gathered plants is discussed, based on new and existing data. Based on a structural comparison of charred plant assemblages from domestic sites and tombs, we develop a research hypothesis that settlement finds provide insight into production and consumption of food from crops, while tombs mainly yield evidence of plants gathered in the wild or in semi-wild areas in the vicinity of former settlements. Therefore, we suggest a model of different purposes and meanings of plants, depending on whether primarily an economic or a social/ritual sphere is regarded. But, for all evaluations and interpretations, it is essential to consider the taphonomic processes and conditions. Therefore, further research is necessary to verify our hypothesis, which derives from first insights into new material.     

New data on Sicilian prehistoric and historic evolution in a mountain context,Vallone Inferno (Scillato,Italy)

Vallone Inferno rock-shelter is an archaeological site located in the Madonie mountain range in Sicily. Archaeological excavation and research have provided a long prehistoric and historic sequence from the Neolithic to the medieval period, this being the most complete work in this area at present. In this paper we present the preliminary data provided by a multidisciplinary study based on pottery, lithic, human, faunal and plant remains. Stratigraphic studies have identified four complexes, of which complex 3 has provided almost all the archaeological remains. ¹⁴C AMS dates, obtained from four samples, place the human activities between 2601 cal BC and 644 cal AD. These dates are coherent with the cultural attribution of the ceramic and lithic remains. Macrofaunal and plant remains show a persistent use of the shelter for pastoral activities. Environmental data, obtained from microvertebrate and archaeobotanical remains, show the aridification and opening of the landscape from the base to the top of the sequence as a consequence of the human impact.     

内蒙古魏家窝铺遗址陶器内淀粉粒反映的古人类食谱及相关问题

魏家窝铺遗址位于内蒙古赤峰市红山区文钟镇魏家窝铺村,是一处大型的红山文化中期环壕聚落遗址。在2009-2011年发掘出土的陶器中,许多平底器类标本内壁表面都发现有细腻的黑色灰烬,我们对这些灰烬和几件不含灰烬的陶器标本进行了植物残留物提取和鉴定,从六份样品中观测到了植物淀粉粒,这些淀粉粒可根据形态分为四种类型,分别代表了禾本科、植物地下储藏器官、疑似坚果的植物种类和未知种类。大量的禾本科淀粉粒在形态上与粟类(小米)淀粉粒极为相似,加之遗址中出土的大量炭化粟,我们推测,这些陶罐中的黑色灰烬为内部盛装的粟炭化分解所致,这些陶器正是红山文化中的食物储藏器。存在的其他类型淀粉粒表明,尽管魏家窝铺遗址出土的植物遗存已显示了较为确凿的农业经济,但采集经济也仍占有重要地位。     

Neolithic dairy farming at the extreme of agriculture in northern Europe

The conventional ‘Neolithic package’ comprised animals and plants originally domesticated in the Near East. As farming spread on a generally northwest trajectory across Europe, early pastoralists would have been faced with the challenge of making farming viable in regions in which the organisms were poorly adapted to providing optimal yields or even surviving. Hence, it has long been debated whether Neolithic economies were ever established at the modern limits of agriculture. Here, we examine food residues in pottery, testing a hypothesis that Neolithic farming was practiced beyond the 60th parallel north. Our findings, based on diagnostic biomarker lipids and δ¹³C values of preserved fatty acids, reveal a transition at ca 2500 BC from the exploitation of aquatic organisms to processing of ruminant products, specifically milk, confirming farming was practiced at high latitudes. Combining this with genetic, environmental and archaeological information, we demonstrate the origins of dairying probably accompanied an incoming, genetically distinct, population successfully establishing this new subsistence ‘package’.     

Trifolieae and related seeds from archaeological contexts: problems in identification

Small legume seeds are commonly recovered from Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic sites in north Africa and south-west Asia, often as a high proportion of the total plant remains. Their role is uncertain, but it is thought that small-seeded legumes may once have been a human food resource. They are difficult to identify. The gross morphology and testa surface micromorphology have been investigated in fresh seeds of members of the tribe Trifolieae and some related tribes in the same subfamily Faboideae. The separation of the four genera Medicago, Melilotus, Trifolium, and Trigonella has been attempted by multivariate analysis of seed characters that can be seen in experimentally charred seed specimens. The characters used have also been observed in well-preserved ancient charred small legume seeds, and so can be readily used for the purpose of identification. Although identification to the level of species is rarely possible, identification to generic level could provide information useful for the interpretation of this category of ancient plant remains.     

From the field to the hearth: plant remains from Neolithic Croatia (ca. 6000–4000 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>)

Until recently the recovery of plant remains in Croatia was rare, resulting in few studies addressing the nature of Neolithic crop cultivation. This paper presents new archaeobotanical data from eleven Neolithic settlements in coastal and continental Croatia. Within continental Croatia, three sites dating to the Star?evo culture (early/middle Neolithic; ca. 6000–5300 cal bc) and six to the Sopot culture (late Neolithic; ca. 5300–4000 cal bc) are examined along with two Hvar culture sites (late Neolithic; ca. 4800–4000 cal bc) located along the coast. Different settlement types are included in the study: open air sites, tells and cave sites. From the data collected the most common crops identified were einkorn, emmer, barley, lentil, pea and flax, as well as the fruits Cornus mas (Cornelian cherry) and Physalis alkekengi (Chinese lantern), which were particularly dominant in the Sopot culture settlements. By examining formation processes, sieved crop processing products and by-products were identified at six of the sites, suggesting that cereals were processed on a day-to-day basis at the household level. In contrast, the remains from the late Neolithic coastal cave site of Turska Pe? suggest two distinct formation processes. At the eastern side of the cave the plant remains suggest that episodes of dung burning occurred, possibly to clear the cave of excess waste during seasonal habitation of the cave by herders and livestock. Towards the back of the cave, cereal remains and higher charcoal densities may suggest an area used for food preparation or cooking.     

Genomics at the origins of agriculture,part one

The causes and consequences of the Neolithic revolution represent a fundamental problem for anthropological inquiry. Traditional archeological evidence, ethnobotanical remains, artifacts, and settlement patterns have been used to infer the transition from foraging to primary food production. Recent advances in genomics (the study of the sequence, structure, and function of the genome) has enhanced our understanding of the process of plant and animal domestication, revealed the impact that adaptation to agriculture has had on human biology, and provided clues to the pathogens and parasites thought to have emerged during the Neolithic. Genomic analysis provides insights into the complexity of the process of domestication that may not be apparent from the physical remains of bones and seeds, and allows us to measure the impact that the shift to primary food production had on the human genome. Questions related to the location and the process of domestication can be answered more fully by analyzing the genomes of the plants and animals brought under human control. The spread of the agriculture package (plants, animals, and technology) by cultural diffusion or demic expansion can also be investigated through this approach. Whether dissemination by farmers or the diffusion of farming knowledge and technology was the source of the Neolithic expansion, this process should be revealed by the patterh of genetic and linguistic diversity and language found from centers of agricultural Neolithic development. In addition, a number of pathogens that were previously thought to have been transmitted from domesticated species to human now appear to have been present in foragers long before the agricultural revolution took place. Furthermore, we now have evidence that humans were the source of the transmission of some parasites to domesticated animals. For all of these reasons, data from genomic studies are providing a more complete understanding of the origins of agriculture, a critical hallmark in human evolution.     

干旱区叶片形态特征与植物响应和适应的关系

叶片形态是指示植物适应特定环境的重要指标。由于植物叶片形态不仅对时空环境变化具有极强的敏感性和可塑性, 而且能够通过叶片形态的调整调节自身的生存适应能力, 所以叶片形态学研究一直是植物生理及植物生态学研究中的热点。该文在总结前人叶片形态学研究成果的基础上, 探索建立了简单的叶片形态指标分类体系; 结合物质能量交换的物理学原理, 回顾总结了叶片表观形态变化与叶片物质能量交换之间的相关关系; 应用叶片形态影响物质能量交换的物理学原理, 重点分析了干旱区植物叶片表观形态对低水分环境、高辐射(或高温)的响应与适应特征; 最后, 在回顾分析的基础上, 对叶片形态研究中存在的几个问题进行了讨论。