Parvovirus b19 DNA CpG dinucleotide methylation and epigenetic regulation of viral expression

CpG DNA methylation is one of the main epigenetic modifications playing a role in the control of gene expression. For DNA viruses whose genome has the ability to integrate in the host genome or to maintain as a latent episome, a correlation has been found between the extent of DNA methylation and viral quiescence. No information is available for Parvovirus B19, a human pathogenic virus, which is capable of both lytic and persistent infections. Within Parvovirus B19 genome, the inverted terminal regions display all the characteristic signatures of a genomic CpG island; therefore we hypothesised a role of CpG dinucleotide methylation in the regulation of viral genome expression.The analysis of CpG dinucleotide methylation of Parvovirus B19 DNA was carried out by an aptly designed quantitative real-time PCR assay on bisulfite-modified DNA. The effects of CpG methylation on the regulation of viral genome expression were first investigated by transfection of either unmethylated or in vitro methylated viral DNA in a model cell line, showing that methylation of viral DNA was correlated to lower expression levels of the viral genome. Then, in the course of in vitro infections in different cellular environments, it was observed that absence of viral expression and genome replication were both correlated to increasing levels of CpG methylation of viral DNA. Finally, the presence of CpG methylation was documented in viral DNA present in bioptic samples, indicating the occurrence and a possible role of this epigenetic modification in the course of natural infections.The presence of an epigenetic level of regulation of viral genome expression, possibly correlated to the silencing of the viral genome and contributing to the maintenance of the virus in tissues, can be relevant to the balance and outcome of the different types of infection associated to Parvovirus B19.     

Evidence for widespread genomic methylation in the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

The importance of DNA methylation in mammalian and plant systems is well established. In recent years there has been renewed interest in DNA methylation in insects. Accumulating evidence, both from mammals and insects, points towards an emerging role for DNA methylation in the regulation of phenotypic plasticity. The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) is a model organism for the study of phenotypic plasticity. Despite this, there is little information available about the degree to which the genome is methylated in this species and genes encoding methylation machinery have not been previously identified. We therefore undertook an initial investigation to establish the presence of a functional DNA methylation system in L. migratoria. We found that the migratory locust possesses genes that putatively encode methylation machinery (DNA methyltransferases and a methyl-binding domain protein) and exhibits genomic methylation, some of which appears to be localised to repetitive regions of the genome. We have also identified a distinct group of genes within the L. migratoria genome that appear to have been historically methylated and show some possible functional differentiation. These results will facilitate more detailed research into the functional significance of DNA methylation in locusts.     

Conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes

DNA methylation is one of the most important heritable epigenetic modifications of the genome and is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes. Aberrant DNA methylation has been frequently reported to influence gene expression and subsequently cause various human diseases, including cancer. Recent rapid advances in next-generation sequencing technologies have enabled investigators to profile genome methylation patterns at single-base resolution. Remarkably, more than 20 eukaryotic methylomes have been generated thus far, with a majority published since November 2009. Analysis of this vast amount of data has dramatically enriched our knowledge of biological function, conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes. Even so, many specific functions of DNA methylation and their underlying regulatory systems still remain unknown to us. Here, we briefly introduce current approaches for DNA methylation profiling and then systematically review the features of whole genome DNA methylation patterns in eight animals, six plants and five fungi. Our systematic comparison provides new insights into the conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes and their regulation of gene expression. This work aims to summarize the current state of available methylome data and features informatively.     

Conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes: New insights from single base-resolution DNA methylomes

DNA methylation is one of the most important heritable epigenetic modifications of the genome and is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes. Aberrant DNA methylation has been frequently reported to influence gene expression and subsequently cause various human diseases, including cancer. Recent rapid advances in next-generation sequencing technologies have enabled investigators to profile genome methylation patterns at singlebase resolution. Remarkably, more than 20 eukaryotic methylomes have been generated thus far, with a majority published since November 2009. Analysis of this vast amount of data has dramatically enriched our knowledge of biological function, conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes. Even so, many specific functions of DNA methylation and their underlying regulatory systems still remain unknown to us. Here, we briefly introduce current approaches for DNA methylation profiling and then systematically review the features of whole genome DNA methylation patterns in eight animals, six plants and five fungi. Our systematic comparison provides new insights into the conservation and divergence of DNA methylation in eukaryotes and their regulation of gene expression. This work aims to summarize the current state of available methylome data and features informatively.Key words: DNA methylation, methylome, single-base resolution, CpG, gene body, broadness, deepness, promoter     

DNA甲基化在动植物遗传育种中的研究进展

DNA甲基化是真核生物表观遗传学重要的机制之一,对基因转录水平的表达具有重要的调控作用。近年来,DNA甲基化在动植物遗传育种领域的研究引起了人们广泛的关注。我们从DNA甲基化与基因的表达调控、动植物基因组的甲基化状态、甲基敏感扩增片段多态性方法、DNA甲基化与杂种优势,以及DNA甲基化与分子标记等方面,简要综述了国内外有关DNA甲基化在动植物遗传育种研究中的进展,着重于全基因组DNA甲基化模式在动植物遗传育种中的相关研究和应用。     

LINE-1 methylation status of endogenous DNA double-strand breaks

DNA methylation and the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are important processes for maintaining genomic integrity. Although DSBs can be produced by numerous agents, they also occur spontaneously as endogenous DSBs (EDSBs). In this study, we evaluated the methylation status of EDSBs to determine if there is a connection between DNA methylation and EDSBs. We utilized interspersed repetitive sequence polymerase chain reaction (PCR), ligation-mediated PCR and combined bisulfite restriction analysis to examine the extent of EDSBs and methylation at long interspersed nuclear element-1 (LINE-1) sequences nearby EDSBs. We tested normal white blood cells and several cell lines derived from epithelial cancers and leukemias. Significant levels of EDSBs were detectable in all cell types. EDSBs were also found in both replicating and non-replicating cells. We found that EDSBs contain higher levels of methylation than the cellular genome. This hypermethylation is replication independent and the methylation was present in the genome at the location prior to the DNA DSB. The differences in methylation levels between EDSBs and the rest of the genome suggests that EDSBs are differentially processed, by production, end-modification, or repair, depending on the DNA methylation status.     

MSAP markers and global cytosine methylation in plants: a literature survey and comparative analysis for a wild‐growing species

Methylation of DNA cytosines affects whether transposons are silenced and genes are expressed, and is a major epigenetic mechanism whereby plants respond to environmental change. Analyses of methylation‐sensitive amplification polymorphism (MS‐AFLP or MSAP) have been often used to assess methyl‐cytosine changes in response to stress treatments and, more recently, in ecological studies of wild plant populations. MSAP technique does not require a sequenced reference genome and provides many anonymous loci randomly distributed over the genome for which the methylation status can be ascertained. Scoring of MSAP data, however, is not straightforward, and efforts are still required to standardize this step to make use of the potential to distinguish between methylation at different nucleotide contexts. Furthermore, it is not known how accurately MSAP infers genome‐wide cytosine methylation levels in plants. Here, we analyse the relationship between MSAP results and the percentage of global cytosine methylation in genomic DNA obtained by HPLC analysis. A screening of literature revealed that methylation of cytosines at cleavage sites assayed by MSAP was greater than genome‐wide estimates obtained by HPLC, and percentages of methylation at different nucleotide contexts varied within and across species. Concurrent HPLC and MSAP analyses of DNA from 200 individuals of the perennial herb Helleborus foetidus confirmed that methyl‐cytosine was more frequent in CCGG contexts than in the genome as a whole. In this species, global methylation was unrelated to methylation at the inner CG site. We suggest that global HPLC and context‐specific MSAP methylation estimates provide complementary information whose combination can improve our current understanding of methylation‐based epigenetic processes in nonmodel plants.     

In pursuit of the first recognized epigenetic signal––DNA methylation: A 1976 to 2008 synopsis

A synopsis will be presented of work on DNA methylation, the first epigenetic signal to be recognized. In the author´s laboratory, the following problems dealing with DNA methylation have been addressed over the past 32 years:(1) The de novo methylation of foreign DNA integrated into mammalian genomes. (2) Inverse correlations between promoter methylation and activity.(3) The long-term inactivating effect of site-specific promoter methylation. (4) Adenovirus E1 functions in trans and a strong enhancer in cis cancel the silencing effect of promoter methylation.(5) Frog virus 3, an iridovirus with a completely CpG-methylated genome. (6) Mechanisms of de novo methylation.(7) Different segments of the genome possess topical methylation memories.(8) Consequences of foreign DNA insertion into mammalian genomes: alterations of DNA methylation in cis and trans.(9) The epigenetic status of an adenovirus transgenome in Ad12-transformed hamster cells. (10) Cell type-specific patterns of DNA methylation: interindividual concordance in the human genome.     

Bisulfite sequencing reveals that Aspergillus flavus holds a hollow in DNA methylation

Aspergillus flavus first gained scientific attention for its production of aflatoxin. The underlying regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis has been serving as a theoretical model for biosynthesis of other microbial secondary metabolites. Nevertheless, for several decades, the DNA methylation status, one of the important epigenomic modifications involved in gene regulation, in A. flavus remains to be controversial. Here, we applied bisulfite sequencing in conjunction with a biological replicate strategy to investigate the DNA methylation profiling of A. flavus genome. Both the bisulfite sequencing data and the methylome comparisons with other fungi confirm that the DNA methylation level of this fungus is negligible. Further investigation into the DNA methyltransferase of Aspergillus uncovers its close relationship with RID-like enzymes as well as its divergence with the methyltransferase of species with validated DNA methylation. The lack of repeat contents of the A. flavus' genome and the high RIP-index of the small amount of remanent repeat potentially support our speculation that DNA methylation may be absent in A. flavus or that it may possess de novo DNA methylation which occurs very transiently during the obscure sexual stage of this fungal species. This work contributes to our understanding on the DNA methylation status of A. flavus, as well as reinforces our views on the DNA methylation in fungal species. In addition, our strategy of applying bisulfite sequencing to DNA methylation detection in species with low DNA methylation may serve as a reference for later scientific investigations in other hypomethylated species.     

植物DNA甲基化调控因子研究进展

DNA甲基化是重要的植物基因组表观遗传修饰。植物中DNA甲基化的建立与维持是由多个调控因子协同作用的结果。不同的甲基转移酶类能直接作用于不同位点胞嘧啶甲基化, 其中MET1主要负责保持原初CG位点的甲基化, CMT3主要负责保持CNG位点的甲基化, 并由DRM与CMT3的协同从头甲基化作用来补偿其他相关序列的甲基化。这些甲基转移酶与染色质重塑解旋酶和组蛋白修饰因子协同改变染色质的结构, 行使表观遗传的功能。DNA转葡糖基酶有去甲基化活性从而减轻基因沉默。文章综述了以上植物DNA甲基化调控因子的生物学功能及其之间的相互作用和近年来的研究进展, 以更好的理解DNA甲基化的建立、保持和去除的机制。     

An immunochemical method for detection and analysis of changes in methylome

DNA methylation is an important epigenetic modification involved in the ability of an organism to respond to stress and adaptation. It has been implicated in development, differentiation, oncogenesis, chromatin remodelling, nutrigenomics, and appears to play a pivotal role in many regulatory and adaptive functions. It is therefore important to analyze the status of DNA methylation and its changes under various developmental, carcinogenic, pharmacological, and environmental conditions. In this report we describe an immunochemical method for the detection of genome wide DNA methylation and its alterations under various conditions along with the analysis of DNA methyltransferase activity. The ability of this approach to detect and provide a map of methylomic changes in a genome facilitates assessment of various agents and conditions which can alter this important epigenetic signal. This experimental system permits rapid evaluation of potential target genes which would be modulated by DNA methylation changes and thus the gene networks that govern the processes.     

Methylation analysis by DNA immunoprecipitation

DNA methylation regulates gene expression primarily through modification of chromatin structure. Global methylation studies have revealed biologically relevant patterns of DNA methylation in the human genome affecting sequences such as gene promoters, gene bodies, and repetitive elements. Disruption of normal methylation patterns and subsequent gene expression changes have been observed in several diseases especially in human cancers. Immunoprecipitation (IP)‐based methods to evaluate methylation status of DNA have been instrumental in such genome‐wide methylation studies. This review describes techniques commonly used to identify and quantify methylated DNA with emphasis on IP based platforms. In an effort to consolidate the wealth of information and highlight critical aspects of methylated DNA analysis, sample considerations, experimental and bioinformatic approaches for analyzing genome‐wide methylation profiles, and the benefit of integrating DNA methylation data with complementary dimensions of genomic data are discussed. J. Cell. Physiol. 222: 522–531, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.