Pistil drip following pollination: a simple <Emphasis Type="Italic">in planta</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation in cotton

Transgenic cotton plants were developed by pistil drip inoculation in a solution containing Agrobacterium carrying a gene for resistance to the herbicide Basta (bar), 10% (w/v) sucrose, 0.05% (v/v) Silwet L-77 and 40 mg acetosyringone l⁻¹. Pistil drip during 17:00–19:00 on the first day of flowering resulted in 0.07–0.17% Basta-resistant plants/number of viable seeds generated, and stigma excision prior to pistil drip during this time period gave rise to a transformation efficiency of 0.46–0.93%, in contrast with 0.04–0.06% generated from pistil drip during 9:00–11:00 on the second day of flowering. PCR and Southern blot analysis confirmed the integration of the bar gene into the cotton genome, and a T1 and T2 generation herbicide resistance test consistently revealed expression and stable heritability of the bar gene in the two generations.     

Daytime deliveries observed for the ring-tailed lemurs of the berenty reserve, Madagascar

In the Berenty Reserve, Southern Madagascar, of the 16 deliveries recorded for ring-tailed lemurs from 1995 and 1997, 10 cases occurred during daytime hours (07:00 – 16:59). Four mothers lost contact with their troop members during parturition, but were able to rejoin them after about one hour. No attack from the individuals of the neighboring groups or predators on the mothers or their newborn infants was observed, whereas, other females of the mother’s own troop attacked them after delivery in two cases. Such daytime delivery may have originated from the circadian rhythm of the species’ nocturnal ancestors, who might have given birth during the daytime. This pattern may now be a non-adaptive feature, in agreement with the “evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis (EVDH).”     

Overlap of temporal niches among four sympatric species of shrews

Hypotheses about the dependence of circadian activity from metabolic rate and the segregation of temporal niches among competing species were verified by the study of activity patterns in a shrew community of two semiaquatic species,Neomys anomalus Cabrera, 1907 andN. fodiens (Pennant, 1771), and two terrestrial species,Sorex araneus Linnaeus, 1758 andS. minutus Linnaeus, 1766, co-existing in wet habitats of Białowieża Forest (E Poland). In ten trapping sessions, performed in early summer between 1991 and 2000, traps were open 24 hours continuously and patrolled at 1:00, 5:00, 10:00, 15:00, and 20:00. All the shrew species were most active between 20:00 and 1:00, and least active around mid-day (10:00–15:00). However, activity of the twoSorex species was lower than that of the twoNeomys species in the period 20:00–1:00, but higher in the period 15:00–20:00. BothNeomys species displayed clearly nocturnal, unimodal patterns of activity. In contrast, activity of bothSorex species was relatively evenly distributed over 24 hours and they increased their activity earlier (ie after 15:00) than bothNeomys species (after 20:00). These results confirm the idea that small shrew species with higher metabolic rate have more frequent and more equally distributed activity bouts than large species. Overlap of temporal niches was the highest within genera (99.29% between bothNeomys species and 98.36% between bothSorex species), the lowest betweenN. fodiens andS. araneus (88.26%) andS. minutus (89.34%), and intermediate betweenN. anomalus and bothSorex species (91.78 and 93.34%, respectively). Such high interspecific overlaps in activity suggest a joint-action of other mechanisms that separate ecological niches of these species also in other dimensions (eg food, microhabitat).     

Aeropalynologic analysis of La Plata City (Argentina) during a 3-year period

A continuous aeropalynologic survey of the atmosphere of La Plata was carried out between July 1998 and June 2001 in order to study flowering development from winter to summer using a Lanzoni volumetric spore trap. The total pollen spectrum was represented by 79 pollen types. Between 10 and 12 pollen types showed a relative concentration of more than 1% of the annual total. Airborne pollen was mainly represented by Platanus, Fraxinus, Cupressaceae, Poaceae, Urticaceae, Cyperaceae, Myrtaceae, Celtis, Casuarina and Morus during the 3-year period. Acer and Ambrosia pollen types were only dominant in the first 2 years. Maximum absolute concentrations were recorded in the the July 1998–June 1999 period, and the minimum concentrations were recorded in the July 2000–June 2001 period. The contribution of the arboreal pollen grains was higher than 68% relative to the annual total for each year. Two periods of maximum pollen emissions were found for each year: pollen from aboreal taxa predominated from July to October, and pollen from herbaceous taxa predominated from November to March. There was very little pollen in the atmosphere between April and June. The maximum arboreal and herbaceous pollen emissions were recorded during hours of daylight: at 10:00 and 14:00 hours.     

A new technique for long preservation of 14C-labelled Cladocerans

Three ways of preserving labelled Cladocerans fed with ¹⁴C-Chlorella for 7.5–10 min were tested. Tracer leakage in 4% formalin at room temperature is rapid and extensive (half of the label was found in the animals after 1 hour of preservation). Even when individuals are frozen and sorting is made quickly in a liquid, losses nevertheless occur (substantial decrease of animal activity after only 4–5 min in the water in one of the two experiments performed). Results obtained after freezing in 4% formalin and sorting exactly 2 hours after thawing gave consistent losses: 16 separate experiments with Daphnia pulex, Ceriodaphnia spp. and Diaphanosoma brachyurum gave apparent filtering rates underestimated from 35% to 63% for freezing periods of up to 45 days. The good agreement in in situ community filtering rates between measured values and estimated ones from individual data confirmed the validity of a correction factor of x 2 applied to animals frozen in formalin.     

Growth characteristics of Rhodopseudomonas palustris cultured outdoors, in an underwater tubular photobioreactor, and investigation on photosynthetic efficiency

The underwater tubular photobioreactor is a fully controlled outdoor system to study photosynthetic bacteria. Before growing bacteria cells outdoors, two modified van Niel medium (vN-A, vN-B) were tested under artificial light. During exponential growth, the specific growth rates were 0.0416 and 0.0434 h⁻¹, respectively; vN-B was chosen for outdoor experiments. The growth behavior of Rhodopseudomonas palustris was investigated under a natural light–dark cycle (sunrise–sunset, 15L/9D) and a forced light–dark cycle (9:00–19:00, 10L/14D). Relationships between solar radiations, daily growth rates, and biomass output rates were also investigated. After determining the elemental biomass molar composition and its combustion heat, some trends of photosynthetic efficiency (PE) were obtained over daylight. The PE trends were always of the oscillatory type, with the exception of that achieved at low biomass concentration. Under a natural light/dark cycle, the maximum PE (11.2%) was attained at sunset, while under a forced light/dark cycle, the highest PE (8.5%) was achieved in the morning. Three initial biomass concentrations were investigated (0.65, 1.01, and 1.54 g l⁻¹). The stoichiometric equation for bacteria cells indicated that 87.7% of the carbon of acetic acid was converted to biomass and only 12.3% was lost as CO₂.     

Assessment of a retrofitted downstream fish bypass system for wild Atlantic salmon (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmo salar</Emphasis>) smolts and kelts at a hydroelectric facility on the Exploits River,Newfoundland, Canada

In 2002 and 2003, the Bishops Falls hydroelectric generating facility on the Exploits River, insular Newfoundland, Canada, underwent extensive refurbishing including replacement of turbines and installation of a ‘retrofitted’ bypass and fish handling system. The effectiveness of this new bypass system has been assessed during the annual downstream run of wild Atlantic salmon smolt and kelt in 2003 and 2004. In 2003, 195 smolt were radio tagged and released between June 9 and July 2, in the forebay of the hydro plant (19 releases) and one upstream (in-river) release. Fish guidance efficiency (FGE) of the system overall was 63% (123 of 195 fish) with 36 fish passing through the turbines, and six known mortalities. In 2004, between June 9 and July 2, a total of 358 smolt and 103 kelt were released in the forebay in 45 and 13 releases (n = 8 per release), respectively. The FGE of the system for smolt was 71.7% (257 of 358 fish) and for kelt was 92.3% (95 of 103 fish). In 2004, 96 tagged smolt passed through the turbines and 43 (44.8%) were detected at a downstream station confirming they had survived turbine passage, suggesting an overall survival of smolt passage of the Bishops Falls hydro facility in the order of 85%. A total of seven kelts (6.8%) passed through the turbines and were not detected 1.5 km downstream suggesting they did not survive turbine passage. Smolt spent on average 39.8 h in the forebay before exiting in 2003 and forebay residency averaged 26 h in 2004. In both years, most smolt selected their passage route, actively or passively, within the first 10 h with secondary peaks at 25–30 h and 50–55 h, corresponding to evening passage in the second and third night, after release. Few smolt were bypassed or entrained into turbines during daylight hours. In both years turbine passed smolt spent more time in the forebay suggesting the longer fish reside in the forebay the greater the likelihood of turbine entrainment. Kelt were either bypassed or turbine entrained relatively quickly, within 2 h of release, and virtually all kelts were bypassed/turbine entrained during the hours of 18:00 and 01:00. These data on fish behaviour and residency in the forebay will assist further refinement of operations of the bypass facility to optimize survival.     

Behaviour of the Common Moorhen in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

This study presents data on behavioural acts performed by the Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus in southern Brazil, and compares these with the behaviours previously reported for other populations. Focal observations of individuals were conducted in the municipality of Santa Maria, in the central region of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The sampling was done in 2-hour sessions, between January and March of 2007. A total of 20 behavioural acts, grouped in seven categories, were identified and described: locomotion (N = 5 acts), grooming (N = 4), intra-specific behaviour (N = 2), inter-specific behaviour (N = 3), foraging (N = 2), reproduction (N = 2) and rest (N = 2). Among the observed behaviours were acts that are not described in the literature such as greeting of offspring and some feeding acts. Regarding the use of habitat, we observed that this species has a preference for water or aquatic macrophytes, which is contrary to other reports. In the analysis of behavioural daily variation, overall behavioural categories did not vary significantly throughout the day, whereas we observed a significant difference in the use of categories during the periods 11:00 am–1:00 pm, 1:00–3:00 pm and 5:00–7:00 pm. The contrasting data between studies indicate that the variation between habitats and ecological interactions may generate different selective pressures on the behaviour of G. chloropus.     

Activity,movements, and sociality of newborn Mongolian gazelle calves in the Eastern Steppe

We hand-captured, fitted with motion-sensitive VHF transmitters, and monitored 19 newborn (1–2 days old) Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777 calves in Dornod, Mongolia during the 2000 and 2003 calving seasons to identify changes in activity, movements, and sociality with age. Overall, activity was highly variable throughout the day, regardless of age or year. Calf activity increased, however, from day 2 (age = 2 days; 18% total activity) to day 7 (29%), and 3-fold by day 25 (54%). By days 5–8, calves had moved an average of 6.6 km (range: 2–21 km) from capture sites but were still only seen alone or with their mother. By day 24–26, however, they were located an average of 41 km (range: 24–63 km) away from their capture site, and most (7 of 9) were in aggregations of >1000 animals. Mongolian gazelles do not display behaviour associated with “hiders” after about 2–3 weeks. This reflects the wide-ranging, nomadic existence of the species.     

Diurnal Variation in Scent Marking Behavior in Captive Male and Female Common Marmosets,Callithrix jacchus

Chemical communication by scent-marking behavior in New World primates is used to prevent the access of potential competitors to a territory, to identify food resources and the reproductive condition of mates, among others. In common marmosets, primates of the Callitrichidae family, this behavior also occurs as olfactory identification of an individual or of the reproductive status of females. Despite this information, the diurnal variation and gender differences in the profile of this behavior remain to be investigated. The aims of this study were to establish the diurnal profile of the distribution of this behavior and the influence of the sex of markers. We used 18 adult common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, 10 males and 8 females from 6 family groups (6 fathers and 4 sons; 4 mothers and 4 daughters). The frequency of scent-marking behavior was recorded for each animal over a period of 8 days, twice a week, for 4 weeks, starting when the animals left the nest box (approximately at 05:00 a.m.) until the end of the photophase, at about 05:00 p.m. A MANOVA test was performed to compare the frequency of scent-marking behavior at 2 hour intervals using pooled data for males and females. The results showed that significantly higher levels of scent-marking behavior occurred during the 03:00–05:00 p.m. interval compared to all other intervals. Lower values were recorded during the 11:00–13:00 interval and an effect of the sex factor was also found, with the values being higher for females than for males, although a significant difference was recorded only for the 07:00–09:00 interval. Minimal values for males were recorded during the 07:00–09:00 interval, whereas minimum values for females were recorded during the 11:00–13:00 interval. However, the highest values for both sexes continued to occur during the 15:00–17:00 interval. These results suggest that scent marking behavior in common marmosets has a preferential incidence at the end of the day and this might be occurring in association with feeding behavior. At this time these animals usually forage more to prepare for the night's fast. Since these animals can discriminate chemical clues as long as 24 hours after they have been left, the higher incidence of this behavior at this time probably will assure that the animals will localize feeding resources used on the preceding day. Significant elevation of scent marking behavior in females in relation to males was found only at 07:00–09:00 interval and seems to be associated with signalizing of reproductive status, preferential access to foraging or both.     

Some reproductive characteristics of endangered Caspian Lamprey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Caspiomyzon wagneri</Emphasis> Kessler, 1870) in the Shirud River southern Caspian Sea,Iran

Migration and reproduction of the Caspian Lamprey, Caspiomyzon wagneri, in the Shirud River were investigated during late-March to early-May at water temperatures ranging from 11 to 21.25°C. We examined the effect of water temperature on timing of spawning migrations. There was a significant negative relationship between temperature and intensive migration of Caspian Lamprey (p < 0.05). The most intensive migration of lampreys was at night (21:00–3:00 h) and when the water temperatures averaged 16°C (34.43%). The overall sex ratio (male to female) was 1.07 to 1. The individual absolute fecundity was 31 ‘758–51’ 198 eggs (mean±SD—41,924 ± 5,382). The egg diameter was 0.780–1.151 (0.92 ± 0.081) mm. The individual relative fecundity varies from 80.3 to 148.1 (107.2 ± 15.1) eggs per 1 mm of length and from 260.8 to 677.4 (397.6 ± 93) eggs per 1 g of weight. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) of females was 5.83–31.44 (11.22 ± 4.30).     

Genotype screening for proliferative embryogenesis and biolistic transformation of short-season soybean genotypes

 Eighteen of 20 short-season soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) genotypes (maturity group 0 and 00) screened for proliferative embryogenic capacity formed secondary globular embryos, at rates of 1–70% of cultured immature cotyledons. Five genotypes produced embryogenic cultures which were proliferative for at least 6 months. Proliferative embryogenic cultures of AC Colibri and X2650–7–2–3 were bombarded using a Bio-Rad PDS-1000/He particle gun. Co-bombardments with plasmid pairs pHygr (encoding a type IV aminoglycoside phosphotransferase;aphIV) and pRD300pat (encoding a phosphinothricin N-acetyltransferase;pat) or pRD300pat and pFF19G (β-glucuronidase;uidA or gus) resulted, respectively, in 12 hygromycin-selected lines with multiple insertions of aphIV and pat, and two l-phosphinothricin-selected lines plus three β-glucuronidase-positive lines recovered without selection. Although fertile plants were recovered from young proliferative cultures, transgenic plants, which were derived from cultures 12–14 months of age, were sterile. Received: 8 January 1998 / Revision received: 12 January 1999 / Accepted: 12 July 1999     

Female sexual receptivity and male copula guarding during prolonged copulations in the damselflyIschnura senegalensis (Odonata:Coenagrionidae)

Laboratory experiments were conducted to clarify the relationship between female sexual receptivity and male copula guarding inI. senegalensis, a species that copulates for several hours. In insectaries, most copulations were initiated early in the morning, and terminated relatively synchronously between 11 00 and 13 00. Females refused males with wing-flutter display and oviposited alone in the afternoon regardless of copulation events of that morning. Females could sexually receive males only in the morning. Males copulated for several hours until 12 00 after which females could oviposit. To determine whether copulations that last for hours function as male copula guarding or only of sperm displacement, emerged males were kept at various densities and permitted to copulate with virgin and mated females in insectaries. Both with virgin and mated females, “social” (not solitary; 2–4 males / insectary) males initiated copulations early in the morning and always terminated at around 12 00. However, both with virgin and mated females, solitary (one male / insectary) males terminated copulations in the morning. In both cases, duration of copulations did not significantly differ for virgin females and mated females. Therefore, long (several hour) copulation is more likely to function as male copula guarding than as sperm displacement, and duration of copulations is predicted to be shortened when male density is very low.     

The daily variations of airborne fungal spores in Mexico City

The daily and seasonal distribution of airborne fungal particles was recorded in a high altitude tropical zone. Sampling was carried out in the southern part of Mexico City. An Andersen air sampler was used over a period of six months. Ten minutes sampling for each set of plates was done at fixed schedule: 07:30, 14:00 and 19:00 hours. The sampler was placed 10 m above the ground. Daily variation was found to be associated with the season, weather and atmospheric stability. The highest value of mold counts (3195 CFU m⁻³) was recorded in the evening on October, a transitional month between the rainy and the dry seasons, the lowest (45 CFU m⁻³) at noon during the rainy season. Mold counts were significantly correlated with temperature, having negative signs both in the morning and at noon, and being positive in the evening. The abundance of only three genera was recorded.Cladosporium, was isolated more frequently, and its abundance at 14:00 h was of 38%;Alternaria represented 4.0%, at 14:00 h, andAspergillus 3.0% at 7:30 h. Fifteen species belonging to the latter genera were identified and most of them are considered as opportunistic molds of clinical significance.     

Activity rhythms and use of space of a group ofAotus azarae in Bolivia during the rainy season

A group ofAotus azarae living in an island forest in the Beni region of Bolivia was observed for ten nights during the rainy season of 1985. The three members of the group, an adult male, an adult female, and the young of the year, spent 49.4% of their time resting, 31.7% feeding and 19.8% locomoting. Activity started with low intensity vocalizations about 10–15 min after sunset, the animals returning to the sleeping site in the morning, 10 to 20 min before dawn. Feeding occurred mainly during the early hours of the night, and from 1:30 a.m. to 4:00 a.m. they spent most of their time at rest. The average distance travelled per night was 337.4 m, the monkeys locomoting mainly in the first half of the night. Of the whole of the island forest (0.33 ha), our monkeys used mainly an area of 0.18 ha.     

Observations of spawning in the Leather Bass, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dermatolepis dermatolepis</Emphasis> (Teleostei: Epinephelidae), at Cocos Island,Costa Rica

Courtship and spawning behavior is described for the Leather Bass, Dermatolepis dermatolepis, from observations made from a manned submersible at Cocos Island, Costa Rica on 19 days between November 2006 and February 2007. Spawning occurred in the evening (16:00–18:30 h) in subgroups of 10–32 individuals that formed within aggregations of 50–70 individuals. The mating sequence was characterized by subgroup formation and crowding behavior followed by a brief vertical spawning rush, gamete release, and the rapid separation of participants. The aggregation was present on all dives, and spawning was not restricted to specific lunar phases.     

Lipid synthesis inhibitors: Effect on epidermal lipid conformational changes and percutaneous permeation of levodopa

A combination of lipid synthesis inhibitors was used to enhance the in vitro and in vivo permeation of levodopa (LD) across rat epidermis, and their influence on epidermal lipids was investigated using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. Rat epidermis was treated with ethanol and a combination of atorvastatin (750 μg/7 cm²), cerulenin (20 μg/7 cm²), and β-chloroalanine (600 μg/7 cm²) for sustaining the reduced content of epidermal cholesterol, fatty acids (as triglycerides), and ceramide (as sphingosine), respectively, in viable rat skin. This treatment resulted in significant (P<.05) synthesis inhibition of skin lipids up to 48 hours and 6-fold enhancement in the in vitro permeation of LD. The effective plasma concentration of LD was achieved within 1 hour and maintained over 48 hours after topical application to rat epidermis treated with a combination of these lipid synthesis inhibitors. ATR-FTIR studies of inhibitor(s)-treated rat epidermis revealed a significant decrease (P<.05) in peak height and area for both asymmetric and symmetric C−H stretching absorbances, suggesting extraction of lipids. However, an insignificant (P<.05) shift in the frequency of these peaks suggested no fluidization of epidermal lipids by lipid synthesis inhibitors. A direct correlation was observed between epidermal lipid synthesis inhibition, decrease in peak height or area, and percutaneous permeation of LD. Skin lipid synthesis inhibition by a combination of lipid synthesis inhibitors seems to offer a feasible approach for enhancing the transcutaneous delivery of LD. Published: October 24, 2005     

Seasonal change in foraging areas and dive depths of breeding king penguins at Heard Island

The seasonal variation in the foraging behaviour of king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) was studied at Heard Island (53°05′S, 73°30′E) during 1992/1993. On seven occasions throughout the breeding cycle, time-depth-light recorders were deployed on breeding adults to record the dive activities and foraging. Foraging locations changed with season: in autumn and spring 1992, adults foraged between 48–52°S and 74–78°E, about 370 km NNE of Heard Island close to the Polar Front. Two penguins tracked in winter travelled 2220 km east of Heard Island (95°E) along the northern ice limit, and 1220 km south of Heard Island to approximately 65°S, respectively. In spring (October), the penguins again foraged further north than during winter. The foraging area utilised in October overlapped the area where the penguins foraged in March/April. The penguins' diving behaviour also varied seasonally: the modal depth of deep dives (>50 m) increased from about 100 m in February to 220 m in October. Mean dive depths increased from 70 ± 52 m in March 1992 to 160 ± 68 m in August 1992. Penguins dived deep (>50 m) only during daylight hours (16 h in February, 9 h in July). Mean dive durations ranged from 2.9 ± 1.1 min in March 1992 to 5.1 ± 1.2 min in August 1992. Associated with changes in foraging location and dive behaviour was a change in diet composition: during summer the penguins ingested mainly myctophid fish (>90%) while in winter the most important diet item was squid. Accepted: 19 October 1998     

Melatonin does not affect the black pigment migration in the crab Neohelice granulata

N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine or melatonin is a multifunctional molecule. The main physiological function, at least in vertebrates, is to transduce to the animal the photoperiodic information and regulate rhythmic parameters. But studies have also observed the action of this molecule on pigment migration in ectothermic vertebrates. Thus the aim of this paper was to investigate in vivo and in vitro the influence of melatonin on the pigment migration in melanophores of the crab Neohelice granulate. Injections of melatonin (2 × 10⁻⁹ moles · crab⁻¹) at 07:00 h or 19:00 h did not affect (p > 0.05) the circadian pigment migration of the melanophores in constant darkness. Additionally no significant pigment migration (p > 0.05) was verified in normal and eyestalkless crabs injected with melatonin (10⁻¹⁰–10⁻⁷ moles · crab⁻¹) during the day or night. In the ^{in vitro} assay, the response of melanophores to the pigment-dispersing hormone in eyestalkless crabs injected with melatonin (2 × 10⁻⁹ moles · crab⁻¹) 1 and 12 hours before the observations did not differ (p > 0.05) from the control group (injected with physiological solution). These results suggest that melatonin does not act as a signaling factor for pigment dispersion or aggregation in the melanophores of N. Granulate.     

Design and development of multivesicular liposomal depot delivery system for controlled systemic delivery of acyclovir sodium

The aim of the present study was to design a depot delivery system of acyclovir sodium using multivesicular liposomes (MVLs) to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies and to investigate its in vivo effectiveness for sustained delivery. MVLs of acyclovir were prepared by the reverse phase evaporation method. The loading efficiency of the MVLs (45%–82%) was found to be 3 to 6 times higher than conventional multilamellar vesicles (MLVs). The in vitro release of acyclovir from MVL formulations was found to be in a sustained manner and only 70% of drug was released in 96 hours, whereas conventional MLVs released 80% of drug in 16 hours. Following intradermal administration to Wistar rats, the MVL formulations showed effective plasma concentration for 48 hours compared with MLVs and free drug solution (12–16 hours). C_max values of MVL formulations were significantly less (8.6–11.4 μg/mL) than MLV and free drug solution (12.5 μg/mL). The AUC_0–48 of the MVL formulations was 1.5- and 3-fold higher compared with conventional liposomes and free drug solution, respectively. Overall, formulations containing phosphatidyl glycerol as negatively charged lipid showed better results. The MVL delivery system as an intradermal depot offers the advantage of a very high loading and controlled release of acyclovir for an extended period of time. The increase in AUC and decrease in C_max reflects that the MVL formulations could reduce the toxic complications and limitations of conventional IV and oral therapies. Published: September 20, 2005