Differential Responses to Hunting in Two Sympatric Species of Brocket Deer (Mazama americana and M. nana)

Hunting by humans may affect the abundance and activity patterns of game species. We examined the effect of hunting on the abundance and activity patterns of sympatric red brocket deer Mazama americana and dwarf brocket deer M. nana . We conducted four camera-trap surveys (158 sampling stations, 10,244 trap-days, total area sampled 1200 km²) in three areas within the Atlantic Forest of Misiones, Argentina, that differ in protection and hunting pressure. We used logistic regression and tests of independence to evaluate if protection, hunting pressure, and other independent variables affect the probability of recording each species and their recording rate. We used the Mardia–Watson–Wheeler test to examine if the daily activity pattern differs between species and changes with hunting pressure. Red brocket deer were more frequently recorded (397 records, 58% of stations) than dwarf brocket deer (100 records, 37% of stations). The probability of recording red brockets was higher in areas with better protection and increased with the distance to the main accesses used by poachers. The probability of recording dwarf brockets was higher in areas with low protection. Red brockets were more nocturnal than dwarf brockets, a difference that may reduce interspecific competition. However, red brockets were more diurnal in the best-protected areas, suggesting that they can adjust their activity to local hunting pressure. Hunting has opposite effects on the abundance of these deer and may facilitate their coexistence. Hunting should be carefully controlled or managed to ensure the conservation of these little known species.     

Reproductive biology of the wild red brocket deer (Mazama americana) female in the Peruvian Amazon

Knowledge of the reproductive biology is critical for the development of management strategies of the species both in captivity and in the wild, and to address conservation concerns regarding the sustainable use of a species. The present report characterizes some aspects of the reproductive biology of the wild red brocket deer inhabiting the North-eastern Peruvian Amazon region, based on the anatomical and histological examination of the female reproductive organs of 89 wild adult females in different reproductive states. The red brocket deer female presented ovarian follicular waves involving the synchronous growth of a cohort of an average 25 follicles but only one follicle generally survived and continued development, reaching maturity at 4mm. Mean ovulation rate was 1.14 and litter size was 1 fetus. Females presented a low rate of reproductive wastage of 14.3% of embryos. Among the 89 adult females studied, 41 (46.1%) were pregnant and 48 (53.9%) were non-pregnant females. In the Northeastern Peruvian Amazon, conceptions occurred year-round in the red brocket deer but there were peaks in the rate of conception. Estimated yearly reproductive production was 0.76-0.82 young per adult female. Most pregnant females in advanced stage of pregnancy had at least one active CL, suggesting the persistence of CL throughout gestation.     

Ungulate biomass in relation to feeding strategy within Amazonian forests

Summary The relationship between diet and biomass was examined in the Amazonian ungulates (red brocket deer, grey brocket deer, collared peccary, white-lipped peccary, and lowland tapir) of Northeastern Peru. Tropical forest ungulates have lower biomasses than savanna or grassland ungulates, because in tropical forests the majority of primary production occurs in the canopy, well out of reach from terrestrial herbivores. Within the Amazonian ungulates, species that supplement their diet with animal material, namely the peccaries, obtain a greater crude and metabolic biomass, and higher reproductive rates than the purely herbivorous species. Omnivory appears to help terrestrial herbivores inhabiting closed canopy forests overcome some effects of food limitation.     

Assessing Local Knowledge of Game Abundance and Persistence of Hunting Livelihoods in the Bolivian Amazon Using Consensus Analysis

We used cultural consensus models to test whether hunters shared perceptions of wildlife abundance and the relative importance of hunting and fishing in a Guarayo indigenous community in the Bolivian Amazon. Results show that highly prized animals that were considered rare are either those with lower reproductive rates and more sensitivity to land use changes and harvest (white-lipped peccary and spider monkey) or those with marked seasonal distribution patterns (barred sorubim and tiger-fish). Rapidly reproducing and resilient species (agouti and armored catfish) were perceived as abundant. More tapirs and red brocket deer were present than predicted by scientific models possibly because hunters were harvesting these species in new forest management areas. Residents identified hunting and fishing among their most important livelihood activities, recognized bush meat and fish as basic food resources, and expected wildlife harvests to be part of their future livelihoods, although market-based livelihoods and domestic replacements for bush meat were reported.     

Heterogeneity in Primary Productivity Influences Competitive Interactions between Red Deer and Alpine Chamois

Habitat heterogeneity can promote coexistence between herbivores of different body size limited to different extents by resource quantity and quality. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) are known as superior competitors to smaller species with similar diets. We compared competitive interactions and habitat use between red deer and Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) in two adjacent valleys in a strictly protected area in the Central Alps. Red deer density was higher in the valley with higher primary productivity. Only here was horn growth in kid and yearling chamois (as a measure for body condition) negatively correlated with red deer population size, suggesting interspecific competition, and chamois selected meadows with steeper slopes and lower productivity than available on average. Conversely, red deer selected meadows of high productivity, particularly in the poorer area. As these were located mainly at lower elevations, this led to strong altitudinal segregation between the two species here. Local differences in interspecific competition thus coincided with differences in habitat preference and–segregation between areas. This suggests that spatial habitat and resource heterogeneity at the scale of adjacent valleys can provide competition refuges for competitively inferior mountain ungulates which differ from their superior competitor in their metabolic requirements.     

Large herbivore migration plasticity along environmental gradients in Europe: life‐history traits modulate forage effects

The most common framework under which ungulate migration is studied predicts that it is driven by spatio–temporal variation in plant phenology, yet other hypotheses may explain differences within and between species. To disentangle more complex patterns than those based on single species/ single populations, we quantified migration variability using two sympatric ungulate species differing in their foraging strategy, mating system and physiological constraints due to body size. We related observed variation to a set of hypotheses. We used GPS‐collar data from 537 individuals in 10 roe Capreolus capreolus and 12 red deer Cervus elaphus populations spanning environmental gradients across Europe to assess variation in migration propensity, distance and timing. Using time‐to‐event models, we explored how the probability of migration varied in relation to sex, landscape (e.g. topography, forest cover) and temporally‐varying environmental factors (e.g. plant green‐up, snow cover). Migration propensity varied across study areas. Red deer were, on average, three times more migratory than roe deer (56% versus 18%). This relationship was mainly driven by red deer males which were twice as migratory as females (82% versus 38%). The probability of roe deer migration was similar between sexes. Roe deer (both sexes) migrated earliest in spring. While territorial male roe deer migrated last in autumn, male and female red deer migrated around the same time in autumn, likely due to their polygynous mating system. Plant productivity determined the onset of spring migration in both species, but if plant productivity on winter ranges was sufficiently high, roe deer were less likely to leave. In autumn, migration coincided with reduced plant productivity for both species. This relationship was stronger for red deer. Our results confirm that ungulate migration is influenced by plant phenology, but in a novel way, that these effects appear to be modulated by species‐specific traits, especially mating strategies.     

Comparative rumen morphology of sympatric sika deer (Cervus nippon) and red deer (C. elaphus scoticus) in the Ahimanawa and Kaweka Ranges,central North Island,New Zealand

Eighteen sika deer (Cervus nippon) and 14 red deer (C. elaphus scoticus) were sampled from two areas where these closely related species are sympatric. Total body weight, carcass weight, age class, sex, and internal parameters (e.g. liver weight, kidney weight, rumen volume) were recorded. Samples of rumen wall mucosa taken from the dorsal rumen wall, atrium ruminis, caudoventral blindsac, and ventral rumen wall were used to compare rumen morphology between the two species (and also any area, sex, and age effects). Sika deer had significantly lower papilla densities in three of the four rumen wall sites and significantly smaller papillae than red deer in two of the four sites. Surface enlargement factors (SEFs) were calculated to provide comparisons of the effective absorptive surface within the rumens of the two species. The mean SEF for sika deer (4.76) was significantly less that for red deer (6.77), which suggests a greater degree of adaptation to digesting fibrous forage. In the central North Island, New Zealand, where the habitat has been considerably modified by introduced herbivores over the last century and food resources are depleted, such an adaptation would confer a competitive advantage on sika deer over red deer. It is postulated that this diet-related difference largely accounts for the ongoing replacement of red deer by sika deer where these two species are sympatric.     

Agricultural encroachment and lack of enforcement threaten connectivity of range-wide jaguar (Panthera onca) corridor

The purpose of protected areas is to safeguard natural habitats and their biodiversity. However, few protected areas are large enough for the long-term conservation of resident species, making the landscapes surrounding protected areas equally important for species conservation. This is especially true for wide-ranging carnivores such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), for which conservation strategies stress the maintenance of range-wide habitat connectivity via protected areas and dispersal corridors. We used 587 interviews with local people in 441 36-km² sampling units to assess the presence of jaguar and six prey species in a critical corridor in Central America, linking Bosawas Biosphere Reserve and Wawashan Nature Reserve in Nicaragua. We analyzed these data using single-season false-positive detection models in a site occupancy framework. We found that agricultural encroachment, particularly pervasive within a protected area, was the main factor limiting the presence of jaguar and three large-bodied prey species: white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), and red brocket deer (Mazama americana). We suggest that improperly-managed protected areas can suffer the loss of apex predators and their prey, thereby jeopardizing range-wide conservation strategies for threatened species.     

Patterns of Lynx Predation at the Interface between Protected Areas and Multi-Use Landscapes in Central Europe

In Central Europe, protected areas are too small to ensure survival of populations of large carnivores. In the surrounding areas, these species are often persecuted due to competition with game hunters. Therefore, understanding how predation intensity varies spatio-temporally across areas with different levels of protection is fundamental. We investigated the predation patterns of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) in both protected areas and multi-use landscapes of the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem. Based on 359 roe and red deer killed by 10 GPS-collared lynx, we calculated the species-specific annual kill rates and tested for effects of season and lynx age, sex and reproductive status. Because roe and red deer in the study area concentrate in unprotected lowlands during winter, we modeled spatial distribution of kills separately for summer and winter and calculated-the probability of a deer killed by lynx and-the expected number of kills for areas with different levels of protection. Significantly more roe deer (46.05–74.71/year/individual lynx) were killed than red deer (1.57–9.63/year/individual lynx), more deer were killed in winter than in summer, and lynx family groups had higher annual kill rates than adult male, single adult female and subadult female lynx. In winter the probability of a deer killed and the expected number of kills were higher outside the most protected part of the study area than inside; in summer, this probability did not differ between areas, and the expected number of kills was slightly larger inside than outside the most protected part of the study area. This indicates that the intensity of lynx predation in the unprotected part of the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem increases in winter, thus mitigation of conflicts in these areas should be included as a priority in the lynx conservation strategy.     

Identification of the endangered small red brocket deer (Mazama bororo) using noninvasive genetic techniques (Mammalia; Cervidae)

The small red brocket deer Mazama bororo is one of the most endangered deer in the Neotropics. The great morphological similarities with three other sympatric brocket deer species, coupled with the fact that they inhabit densely forested habitats complicate detection and prevent the use of traditional methodologies for accurate identification of species. The ability to determine the presence of this endangered species in an area is crucial for estimating its distribution range, and is critical for establishing conservation management strategies. Here we describe a fast and reliable noninvasive genetic method for species identification of Mazama species from faeces. We designed a primer set that amplifies a short 224-bp fragment of the cytochrome b and demonstrate its effectiveness in successful amplification of DNA isolated from both tissue and faecal samples. This fragment contains a BSTNI/ECORII digestion site that is unique to the endangered M. bororo. The digested polymerase chain reaction products yielded a 160-bp fragment that is clearly visible in a 2% agarose gel. Two other diagnostic sites were identified to differentiate the other three sympatric species, SspI (M. gouazoubira) and AflIII (M. americana, and M. nana).     

Influence of digestive morphology on resource partitioning in Amazonian ungulates

Summary Resource partitioning of diet and habitat use was studied in the entire Amazonian ungulate community of Northeastern Peru, which comprises the red brocket deer (Mazama americana), grey brocket deer (M. gouazoubira), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu), white-lipped peccary (T. pecari), and lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Each ungulate species partitioned at least one type of resource from every other species. Digestive morphology had a greater influence on resource partitioning of diet than body size. Neither digestive morphology nor body size were related to segregation of habitats. However, species with similar diets partitioned habitats, whereas species with different diets often used the same type of forest. Increases in habitat breadth of ungulates were positively correlated with increases in dietary breadth.     

Temporal patterns of visitation of birds and mammals at mineral licks in the Peruvian Amazon

Mineral licks are key ecological resources for many species of birds and mammals in Amazonia, providing essential dietary nutrients and clays, yet little is known about which species visit and their behaviors at the mineral licks. Studying visitation and behavior at mineral licks can provide insight into the lives of otherwise secretive and elusive species. We assessed which species visited mineral licks, when they visited, and whether visits and the probability of recording groups at mineral licks were seasonal or related to the lunar cycle. We camera trapped at 52 mineral licks in the northeastern Peruvian Amazon and detected 20 mammal and 13 bird species over 6,255 camera nights. Generalized linear models assessed visitation patterns and records of groups in association with seasonality and the lunar cycle. We report nocturnal curassows (Nothocrax urumutum) visiting mineral licks for the first time. We found seasonal trends in visitation for the black agouti (Dasyprocta fuliginosa), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), blue‐throated piping guan (Pipile cumanensis), red brocket deer (Mazama americana), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), and tapir (Tapirus terrestris). Lunar trends in visitation occurred for the paca (Cuniculus paca), Brazilian porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), and red brocket deer. The probability of recording groups (>1 individual) at mineral licks was seasonal and related to lunar brightness for tapir. Overall, our results provide important context for how elusive species of birds and mammals interact with these key ecological resources on a landscape scale. The ecological importance of mineral licks for these species can provide context to seasonal changes in species occupancy and movement.

Many species of animals in the Amazon visit mineral licks, consuming soil to supplement their diet. Using camera trap data, we show that visits to mineral licks are seasonal for many species. These trends in visitation are likely due to species‐specific factors such as reproduction, predator avoidance, seasonal diet shifts, and resource use.     

Suppression of Regeneration in New Zealand Mountain Beech Forests is Dependent on Species of Introduced Deer

We compared the impacts on forest regeneration of introduced sika (Cervus nippon) and red (Cervus elaphus) deer in New Zealand. Plot data were used to compare mountain beech (Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides) regeneration between a region with sika deer, and four regions without sika deer. All regions surveyed had red deer present. In the region where sika deer had been present for more than a decade, there was evidence of poor mountain beech seedling regeneration. In the four regions without sika deer, there was evidence of a strong regenerative response at stands with low occupancy by trees. When compared to larger deer species, sika deer have a digestive morphology allowing greater dietary versatility, which may result in them impeding forest regeneration where red deer do not. In contrast to mountain beech, some small-leaved shrub species may have been competitively advantaged by intensive browsing from sika deer. This is contra to a current view that small-leaved shrub species with interlacing branches were able to tolerate browsing from extinct ratite birds, but not introduced deer. Sika deer have been introduced into countries where other deer species are indigenous, such as Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, Czech Republic, Ireland and the United States of America. Because of their dietary advantage, sika deer may have a greater potential to impede forest regeneration and competitively exclude larger deer species, particularly at low basal area sites where impacts on tree regeneration are likely to be greatest.     

Variability of Female Responses to Conspecific vs. Heterospecific Male Mating Calls in Polygynous Deer: An Open Door to Hybridization?

Males of all polygynous deer species (Cervinae) give conspicuous calls during the reproductive season. The extreme interspecific diversity that characterizes these vocalizations suggests that they play a strong role in species discrimination. However, interbreeding between several species of Cervinae indicates permeable interspecific reproductive barriers. This study examines the contribution of vocal behavior to female species discrimination and mating preferences in two closely related polygynous deer species known to hybridize in the wild after introductions. Specifically, we investigate the reaction of estrous female red deer (Cervus elaphus) to playbacks of red deer vs. sika deer (Cervus nippon) male mating calls, with the prediction that females will prefer conspecific calls. While on average female red deer preferred male red deer roars, two out of twenty females spent more time in close proximity to the speaker broadcasting male sika deer moans. We suggest that this absence of strict vocal preference for species-specific mating calls may contribute to the permeability of pre-zygotic reproductive barriers observed between these species. Our results also highlight the importance of examining inter-individual variation when studying the role of female preferences in species discrimination and intraspecific mate selection.     

Autumn-winter diet overlap of fallow, red, and roe deer in forest ecosystems, Southern Poland

The wild population of fallow deer in Central Europe has grown considerably over the last decade. However, information on feeding habits of this alien species in relation to the indigenous red deer or roe deer, in areas of their co-occurrence, is scarce. A prevailing view maintains that their food-niches are distinct, although direct comparative studies have not been carried out. Therefore, the aim of the research was to compare the diets of fallow, red, and roe deer feeding in the same habitat. Research was based on the rumen contents of 242 animals hunted in the autumn-winter season in the forests of Southern Poland. The analyses demonstrated that fallow deer are moderate grazers in such conditions and eat more graminoids in comparison to red or roe deer (36.4% vs. 16.1% or 5.5%, respectively). On the other hand, it feeds on less browse (17.2% vs. 41.4%) or dwarf shrubs (8.4% vs. 19.0%) than red deer, and on less bramble (10.9% vs. 34.6%) or forbs (4.0% vs. 7.6%) in comparison to roe deer (P=0.05). Although the diets of the three deer species differ in terms of the proportion of each food type in their diet, overlapping of their food-niches is high (52.6%).     

圈养条件下新疆马鹿两个亚种的肠道菌群比较分析

肠道菌群组成复杂，与宿主肠道内环境动态平衡和健康息息相关。马鹿是鹿科动物中分布最广的种类，亚种分化众多，但现有马鹿肠道菌群研究较少。为丰富马鹿肠道菌群数据，以马鹿的两个亚种为阶元，运用高通量16S rRNA基因测序技术检测了7头雄性天山马鹿和7头雄性塔里木马鹿的肠道微生物，对其核心菌群、结构组成、多样性及肠道微生物的差异进行分析，旨在了解不同马鹿亚种肠道微生物组成差异，为两亚种间肠道菌群的差异提供参考。研究结果表明，塔里木马鹿菌群多样性及丰度低于天山马鹿。厚壁菌门（Firmicutes）、放线菌门（Actinobacteria）、变形菌门（Proteobacteria）及拟杆菌门（Bacteroidetes）为两组马鹿的优势菌门。此外，天山马鹿肠道中分解蛋白质、脂质的拟杆菌门和变形菌门相对丰度高于塔里木马鹿，而分解植物纤维的双歧杆菌（Bifidobacterium）、瘤胃球菌科UCG 014（Ruminococcaceae UCG 014）的相对丰度低于塔里木马鹿。本研究对天山马鹿及塔里木马鹿肠道菌群组成进行初步了解，可根据研究结果调整其饲料配比，为马鹿饲养管理的改善提供参考。     

Predation has a greater impact in less productive environments: variation in roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, population density across Europe

Aim We aimed to describe the large‐scale patterns in population density of roe deer Caprelous capreolus in Europe and to determine the factors shaping variation in their abundance. Location Europe. Methods We collated data on roe deer population density from 72 localities spanning 25° latitude and 48° longitude and analysed them in relation to a range of environmental factors: vegetation productivity (approximated by the fraction of photosynthetically active radiation) and forest cover as proxies for food supply, winter severity, summer drought and presence or absence of large predators (wolf, Canis lupus, and Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx), hunter harvest and a competitor (red deer, Cervus elaphus). Results Roe deer abundance increased with the overall productivity of vegetation cover and with lower forest cover (sparser forest cover means that a higher proportion of overall plant productivity is allocated to ground vegetation and thus is available to roe deer). The effect of large predators was relatively weak in highly productive environments and in regions with mild climate, but increased markedly in regions with low vegetation productivity and harsh winters. Other potentially limiting factors (hunting, summer drought and competition with red deer) had no significant impact on roe deer abundance. Main conclusions The analyses revealed the combined effect of bottom‐up and top‐down control on roe deer: on a biogeographical scale, population abundance of roe deer has been shaped by food‐related factors and large predators, with additive effects of the two species of predators. The results have implications for management of roe deer populations in Europe. First, an increase in roe deer abundance can be expected as environmental productivity increases due to climate change. Secondly, recovery plans for large carnivores should take environmental productivity and winter severity into account when predicting their impact on prey.     

Estimating brocket deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mazama gouazoubira</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">M. americana</Emphasis>) abundance by dung pellet counts and other indices in seasonal Chiquitano forest habitats of Santa Cruz,Bolivia

We assessed dung and track counts for indexing brocket deer abundance in seasonal habitats on a ranch where hunting is not practiced in the Bolivian lowlands. Surveys were replicated along four 10-km trails (totaling 180 km in the wet season and 90 km in the dry season) through four semideciduous forest habitats. Dung pellets and tracks were identified as belonging to Mazama gouazoubira or M. americana by size and shape. Pellet groups lasted more than 1 month during the dry season, but decayed within 1–2 weeks in the wet season. Mean density estimates based on dung counts varied widely between seasons for gray brockets (from 6.77±4.0 to 30.57±23.5 ind/km²; mean±SD) but not for reds (from 3.52±4.6 to 6.98±7.2 ind/km²). These values were probably too high due to underestimation of daily deposition rate, and were reduced during the wet season because of dung decay. We found consistently more dung in the dry season and more tracks in the wet season. Sightings of red brockets were too few for line-transect analysis (n=6), but those of gray brockets (n=42) produced an overall estimate of 5.6 ind/km² (95% CI=3.5–9.0 ind/km²). Different estimates indicated that gray brockets were more abundant than reds in all situations, except perhaps in the riverine forest. Environmental factors affected these indices of abundance differently, and while we recommend the use of dung counts in dry-season scenarios, we think that index reliability should be assessed locally before conducting population comparisons.     

Phylogeography and founder effect of the endangered Corsican red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus corsicanus</Emphasis>)

Red deer (n = 149) from eight geographical locations, including the endangered endemic populations from the Tyrrhenian islands (Sardinia and Corsica), were analysed at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Two questions were addressed: (1) Is there a founder effect in the Corsican population, which was reintroduced to the island using Sardinian deer after the species’ extinction on Corsica? (2) What is the origin of the Tyrrhenian or Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)? Our results showed signs of a founder effect for the red deer on Corsica in that these deer showed differentiation from the Sardinian population as measured by F_ST values, assignment tests (with and without a priori definition of populations) and individual-based dendrograms. Genetic variability, however, did not differ significantly between the two populations. With respect to the phylogeography of C. e. corsicanus we found that both deer from North-Africa and Mesola on the Italian mainland were genetically close to the Corsican red deer, but phylogenetic trees based on genetic distances were only poorly supported statistically. Among all populations studied the Mesola red deer showed the lowest distance values from Corsican red deer and yielded allele frequencies that were more similar to those of C. e. corsicanus than were those of North-African red deer. These results are in line with recent palaeontological and archaeozoological findings which suggest that the Corsican red deer is derived from small Italian red deer introduced from the mainland to Sardinia and Corsica during the Late Neolithic and just before the beginning of Classical Antiquity, respectively. They also suggest a possible recent introduction of Tyrrhenian red deer to North-Africa (rather than the other way around), thus accounting for the close genetic relationship (especially based on mitochondrial DNA) that has repeatedly been found between C. e. corsicanus and C. e. barbarus.