机械损伤对拟南芥莲座叶芥子油苷含量和组成的影响

植物可以利用体内次生代谢产物的变化来抵御昆虫取食和机械损伤.芥子油苷是拟南芥的主要次生代谢产物.通过剪刀剪取叶片(40%面积)对温室培养的拟南芥幼苗莲座叶进行机械损伤处理,观察机械损伤后8个时间点拟南芥叶片中不同种类芥子油苷含量和组合模式的变化.结果表明机械损伤后3 h叶片中芥子油苷总含量开始明显上升,脂肪族和吲哚族芥子油苷含量在损伤后3 h也都显著高于损伤前.在检测到的12种芥子油苷中,4-甲基亚磺酰丁基芥子油苷(4-methylsulphinylbutyl GS,4MSOB)的含量最多,占芥子油苷总量的48.5%,并且在损伤3 h后含量增加.4MSOB含量的变化成为影响莲座叶中芥子油苷组合模式的主导因素.其它各种芥子油苷在损伤后不同时间点的变化也存在差异.     

盐胁迫对拟南芥和盐芥莲座叶芥子油苷含量的影响

芥子油苷是十字花科植物中一类含氮、含硫的次生代谢产物,与其水解产物在植物防御功能中有重要意义且与环境因子关系密切。以模式植物拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana）和盐生模式植物盐芥（Thellungiella halophila）为研究对象,系统地分析了盐胁迫下二者芥子油苷组成和含量的变化规律。拟南芥（生长4周）和盐芥（生长6周）叶片的芥子油苷组成在盐胁迫后没有改变。拟南芥的芥子油苷总量、脂肪族芥子油苷总量、吲哚族芥子油苷总量受盐胁迫的影响均不显著,而盐芥的则随盐胁迫增强先减少、后增加并高于对照水平。拟南芥脂肪族的3MSOP、5MSOP和吲哚族的4OHI3M、4MOI3M随盐胁迫增强而含量降低,而脂肪族的6MSOH、吲哚族的I3M以及盐芥脂肪族的3MSOP则随盐胁迫增强有含量增加的趋势。拟南芥脂肪族的8MSOO和吲哚族的1MOI3M,盐芥脂肪族的3MTP、Allyl、10MSD和吲哚族的4MOI3M,在盐胁迫下的含量变化与盐芥芥子油苷总量的变化趋势一致。     

Volatile profiling of Arabidopsis thaliana - putative olfactory compounds in plant communication

Arabidopsis thaliana from the Brassicaceae family has arisen as the model organism in plant biology research. The plant's genome has been characterized and worldwide studies are conducted at the genetic, protein and metabolic level to unravell the function of genes involved in growth, reproduction, biosynthesis, and plant communication. As part of the multidisciplinary project BIOEMIT at NTNU, metabolomic studies of Arabidopsis T-DNA knock-out mutants and ecotypes have been carried out. Volatile profiles of autolyzed, intact plants and single plant organs were obtained by solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The studies were aimed at the diversity of defense-related compounds from the glucosinolate-myrosinase system - the isothiocyanates and nitriles. Metabolites from methionine, leucine and phenylalanine-derived glucosinolates were most abundant (4-methylthiobutyl, 4-methylpentyl, 2-phenylethyl). In addition, 24 monoterpenes, 26 sesquiterpenes and 12 aromatic structures, predominantly observed in inflorescenses, are described. Excluding the vast group of straight chain aliphatic structures, a total of 102 volatile compounds were detected, of which 59 are reported in Arabidopsis thaliana for the first time, thus emphasizing the sensitivity and applicability of solid-phase microextraction for volatile profiling of plant secondary metabolites.     

Sub-lethal levels of electric current elicit the biosynthesis of plant secondary metabolites

Many secondary metabolites that are normally undetectable or in low amounts in healthy plant tissue are synthesized in high amounts in response to microbial infection. Various abiotic and biotic agents have been shown to mimic microorganisms and act as elicitors of the synthesis of these plant compounds. In the present study, sub-lethal levels of electric current are shown to elicit the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in transgenic and non-transgenic plant tissue. The production of the phytoalexin (+)-pisatin by pea was used as the main model system. Non-transgenic pea hairy roots treated with 30-100 mA of electric current produced 13 times higher amounts of (+)-pisatin than did the non-elicited controls. Electrically elicited transgenic pea hairy root cultures blocked at various enzymatic steps in the (+)-pisatin biosynthetic pathway also accumulated intermediates preceding the blocked enzymatic step. Secondary metabolites not usually produced by pea accumulated in some of the transgenic root cultures after electric elicitation due to the diversion of the intermediates into new pathways. The amount of pisatin in the medium bathing the roots of electro-elicited roots of hydroponically cultivated pea plants was 10 times higher 24 h after elicitation than in the medium surrounding the roots of non-elicited control plants, showing not only that the electric current elicited (+)-pisatin biosynthesis but also that the (+)-pisatin was released from the roots. Seedlings, intact roots or cell suspension cultures of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), barrel medic, (Medicago truncatula), Arabidopsis thaliana, red clover (Trifolium pratense) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum) also produced increased levels of secondary metabolites in response to electro-elicitation. On the basis of our results, electric current would appear to be a general elicitor of plant secondary metabolites and to have potential for application in both basic and commercial research.     

小立碗藓萜类物质的合成酶基因分析及其UPLC-QTOF检测

根据基因组信息和KEGG数据库分析小立碗藓基因组中合成萜类物质的基因,比较小立碗藓与酵母和拟南芥合成萜类物质基因的氨基酸序列同源性同时利用UPLC-QTOF分析小立碗藓中物质组成,来分析小立碗藓基因组中萜类物质合成的基因及小立碗藓中存在的萜类物质。与酵母相比,小立碗藓两条萜类次生代谢途径完整,途径中的基因及氨基酸丰富性更高,提示可以合成更丰富的前体物质如FPP,GPP等;小立碗藓与拟南芥的序列相似性较高,萜类背景简单。UPLC-QTOF分析检测到小立碗藓中次生代谢物质主要是芳香族化合物及各类生物碱,一种萜类物质ent-16beta-Methoxy-19-kauranoic acid。小立碗藓中本身具有合成萜类前体物质和二萜的基因,检测到少量萜类物质,适合作为萜类活性物质异源合成的底盘细胞。     

A multigene family of glycosyltransferases in a model plant,Arabidopsis thaliana

Glycosyltransferases transfer sugars from NDP-sugar donors to acceptors. The multigene family of transferases described in this paper typically transfer glucose from UDP-glucose to low-molecular-mass acceptors in the cytosol of plant cells. There are 107 sequences in the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana that contain a consensus, suggesting they belong to this Group 1 multigene family. The family has been analysed phylogenetically, and a functional genomics approach has been applied to explore the relatedness of sequence similarity to catalytic specificity and stereoselectivity. Enzymes belonging to this class of transferases glycosylate a vast array of acceptors, including natural products such as secondary metabolites and hormones, as well as xenobiotics absorbed by the plant, such as herbicides and pesticides. Conjugation to glucose potentially changes the activity of the acceptor molecule and invariably changes its location within the plant cell. Using the genomics approach described, a platform of knowledge has been constructed that will enable an understanding to be gained on the role of these enzymes in cellular homoeostasis, as well as their activity in biotransformations in vitro that require strict regioselectivity of glycosylation.     

植物次生代谢及其与环境的关系

人类对植物次生代谢产物（天然产物）的早期研究源于它们的应用价值,近些年来人们越来越认识到植物次生代谢产物广泛的生物学效应,开始重新评价这些化合物在植物生命活动以及生态系统中可能扮演的角色。植物的次生代谢是植物在长期进化中与环境（生物的和非生物的）相互作用的结果,次生代谢产物在植物提高自身保护和生存竞争能力、协调与环境关系上充当着重要的角色。介绍了植物次生代谢及其产物的特点,概述了植物次生代谢与温度、水分、光照、养分、CO2浓度、UV-B辐射、环境污染等非生物环境以及与化学防御、化感作用、菌根共生、微生物病害的关系。研究植物次生代谢与环境的关系,可以从更深的层次发掘植物与环境的内在联系,为全面、深入认识植物与环境的相互关系提供新的研究途径,同时也有利于人类更有效、合理地利用植物的次生代谢产物。     

Metabolic and evolutionary costs of herbivory defense: systems biology of glucosinolate synthesis

Here, we describe our updated mathematical model of Arabidopsis thaliana Columbia metabolism, which adds the glucosinolates, an important group of secondary metabolites, to the reactions of primary metabolism. In so doing, we also describe the evolutionary origins of the enzymes involved in glucosinolate synthesis. We use this model to address a long-standing question in plant evolutionary biology: whether or not apparently defensive compounds such as glucosinolates are metabolically costly to produce. We use flux balance analysis to estimate the flux through every metabolic reaction in the model both when glucosinolates are synthesized and when they are absent. As a result, we can compare the metabolic costs of cell synthesis with and without these compounds, as well as inferring which reactions have their flux altered by glucosinolate synthesis. We find that glucosinolate production can increase photosynthetic requirements by at least 15% and that this cost is specific to the suite of glucosinolates found in A.?thaliana, with other combinations of glucosinolates being even more costly. These observations suggest that glucosinolates have evolved, and indeed likely continue to evolve, for herbivory defense, since only this interpretation explains the maintenance of such costly traits.     

Flavonoids:New Roles for Old Molecules

Flavonoids are ubiquitous in the plant kingdom and have many diverse functions including defense, UV protection, auxin transport inhibition, allelopathy, and flower coloring. Interestingly, these compounds also have considerable biological activity in plant, animal and bacterial systems – such broad activity is accomplished by few compounds. Yet, for all the research over the last three decades, many of the cellular targets of these secondary metabolites are unknown. The many mutants available in model plant species such as Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula are enabling the intricacies of the physiology of these compounds to be deduced. In the present review, we cover recent advances in flavonoid research, discuss deficiencies in our understanding of the physiological processes, and suggest approaches to identify the cellular targets of flavonoids.     

植物次生代谢基因簇研究进展

类似于原核生物的操纵子,在真核生物（如酵母、真菌、昆虫等）基因组中也出现了彼此功能相关的非同源基因成簇存在的现象。这些基因形成基因簇,可参与多种次生代谢途径。近年来,植物中也发现了越来越多的参与次生代谢产物合成的基因簇,它们已成为植物生物学研究的热点。本文总结并分析了植物中已鉴定的次生代谢基因簇。这些基因簇存在于玉米（Zea mays L.）、水稻（Oryza sativa L.）、拟南芥（Arabidopsis thaliana（L.） Heynh.）、番茄（Solanum lycopersicum L.）等植物的基因组中,分别参与合成苯并噁唑嗪酮类、萜类和生物碱类等次生代谢产物。本文通过解析这些基因簇的组成及结构特点,对其特征进行总结,探讨了基因簇形成的分子机理及其调控机制,对植物次生代谢基因簇在合成生物学及代谢工程学中的研究方向和应用前景进行了展望。     

Direct profiling and imaging of plant metabolites in intact tissues by using colloidal graphite-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry

Laser desorption/ionization (LDI)-based imaging mass spectrometry (MS) has been applied to several biological systems to obtain information about both the identities of the major chemical species and their localization. Colloidal graphite-assisted LDI (GALDI) MS imaging was introduced for the imaging of small molecules such as phospholipids, cerebrosides, oligosaccharides, flavonoids, and other secondary metabolites with high spatial homogeneity due to finely dispersed particles. Mass profiles and images of Arabidopsis thaliana have been recorded directly from various plant surfaces and cross sections. The main targeted metabolites were flavonoids and cuticular waxes, both of which are important in many aspects of functional genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics. The mass spectral profiles revealed tissue-specific accumulation of flavonoids in flowers and petals. In addition, many other location-specific ions were observed. The location and the degree of light-induced accumulation of flavonoids in stem sections were successfully probed by GALDI MS.     

昆虫对植物次生物质的代谢适应机制及其对昆虫抗药性的意义

植物次生物质(plant secondary metabolites)对昆虫的取食行为、生长发育及繁殖可以产生不利影响,甚至对昆虫可以产生毒杀作用。为了应对植物次生物质的不利影响,昆虫通过对植物次生物质忌避取食、解毒代谢等多种机制,而对寄主植物产生适应性。其中,昆虫的解毒代谢酶包括昆虫细胞色素P450酶系（P450s）及谷胱甘肽硫转移酶（GSTs）等,在昆虫对植物次生物质的解毒代谢及对寄主植物的适应性中发挥了重要作用。昆虫的解毒酶系统不仅可以代谢植物次生物质,还可能代谢化学杀虫剂,因而昆虫对寄主植物的适应性与其对杀虫剂的耐药性甚至抗药性密切相关。昆虫细胞色素P450s和GSTs等代谢解毒酶活性及相关基因的表达可以被植物次生物质影响,这不仅使昆虫对寄主植物的防御产生了适应性,还影响了昆虫对杀虫剂的解毒代谢,因而改变昆虫的耐药性或抗药性。掌握昆虫对植物次生物质的代谢适应机制及其在昆虫抗药性中的作用,对于明确昆虫的抗药性机制具有重要的参考意义。本文综述了植物次生物质对昆虫的影响、昆虫对寄主植物次生物质的代谢机制、昆虫对植物次生物质的代谢适应性对昆虫耐药性及抗药性的影响等方面的研究进展。     

Higher biomass accumulation by increasing phosphoribosylpyrophosphate synthetase activity in Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum

Plants are able to produce all the organic compounds required for development and growth. As developmental processes and metabolic pathways use a common resource pool, the tight regulation of the distribution of metabolites between growth, production of defence compounds and storage products can be assumed. A transgenic approach was used to investigate the importance of supplying the key intermediate phosphoribosylpyrophosphate (PRPP) for plant growth and biomass accumulation in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and in Nicotiana tabacum . For this purpose, the Ashbya gossypii genes coding for either PRPP synthetase ( PRS ) or a mutated variant of the same gene were over-expressed under the control of a constitutive promoter. It was shown that increased PRS activity in A. thaliana or N. tabacum leads to a substantial increase in biomass accumulation under different standardized growth conditions. Growth enhancement was accompanied by significant changes in the amount of sugars and other metabolites. This study provides evidence that the supply of PRPP co-limits growth rates, and has obvious implications for biotechnological strategies aiming to increase plant biomass as an alternative renewable energy source.     

Improvement of hairy root cultures and plants by changing biosynthetic pathways leading to pharmaceutical metabolites: Strategies and applications

A plethora of bioactive plant metabolites has been explored for pharmaceutical, food chemistry and agricultural applications. The chemical synthesis of these structures is often difficult, so plants are favorably used as producers. While whole plants can serve as a source for secondary metabolites and can be also improved by metabolic engineering, more often cell or organ cultures of relevant plant species are of interest. It should be noted that only in few cases the production for commercial application in such cultures has been achieved. Their genetic manipulation is sometimes faster and the production of a specific metabolite is more reliable, because of less environmental influences. In addition, upscaling in bioreactors is nowadays possible for many of these cultures, so some are already used in industry. There are approaches to alter the profile of metabolites not only by using plant genes, but also by using bacterial genes encoding modifying enzymes. Also, strategies to cope with unwanted or even toxic compounds are available. The need for metabolic engineering of plant secondary metabolite pathways is increasing with the rising demand for (novel) compounds with new bioactive properties. Here, we give some examples of recent developments for the metabolic engineering of plants and organ cultures, which can be used in the production of metabolites with interesting properties.     

Fungal Resistance to Plant Antibiotics as a Mechanism of Pathogenesis

Many plants produce low-molecular-weight compounds which inhibit the growth of phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. These compounds may be preformed inhibitors that are present constitutively in healthy plants (also known as phytoanticipins), or they may be synthesized in response to pathogen attack (phytoalexins). Successful pathogens must be able to circumvent or overcome these antifungal defenses, and this review focuses on the significance of fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis. There is increasing evidence that resistance of fungal pathogens to plant antibiotics can be important for pathogenicity, at least for some fungus-plant interactions. This evidence has emerged largely from studies of fungal degradative enzymes and also from experiments in which plants with altered levels of antifungal secondary metabolites were generated. Whereas the emphasis to date has been on degradative mechanisms of resistance of phytopathogenic fungi to antifungal secondary metabolites, in the future we are likely to see a rapid expansion in our knowledge of alternative mechanisms of resistance. These may include membrane efflux systems of the kind associated with multidrug resistance and innate resistance due to insensitivity of the target site. The manipulation of plant biosynthetic pathways to give altered antibiotic profiles will also be valuable in telling us more about the significance of antifungal secondary metabolites for plant defense and clearly has great potential for enhancing disease resistance for commercial purposes.     

Fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis.

Many plants produce low-molecular-weight compounds which inhibit the growth of phytopathogenic fungi in vitro. These compounds may be preformed inhibitors that are present constitutively in healthy plants (also known as phytoanticipins), or they may be synthesized in response to pathogen attack (phytoalexins). Successful pathogens must be able to circumvent or overcome these antifungal defenses, and this review focuses on the significance of fungal resistance to plant antibiotics as a mechanism of pathogenesis. There is increasing evidence that resistance of fungal pathogens to plant antibiotics can be important for pathogenicity, at least for some fungus-plant interactions. This evidence has emerged largely from studies of fungal degradative enzymes and also from experiments in which plants with altered levels of antifungal secondary metabolites were generated. Whereas the emphasis to date has been on degradative mechanisms of resistance of phytopathogenic fungi to antifungal secondary metabolites, in the future we are likely to see a rapid expansion in our knowledge of alternative mechanisms of resistance. These may include membrane efflux systems of the kind associated with multidrug resistance and innate resistance due to insensitivity of the target site. The manipulation of plant biosynthetic pathways to give altered antibiotic profiles will also be valuable in telling us more about the significance of antifungal secondary metabolites for plant defense and clearly has great potential for enhancing disease resistance for commercial purposes.     

A quantitative evaluation of major plant defense hypotheses, nature versus nurture, and chemistry versus ants

Variation in plant secondary metabolite content can arise due to environmental and genetic variables. Because these metabolites are important in modifying a plant’s interaction with the environment, many studies have examined patterns of variation in plant secondary metabolites. Investigations of chemical defenses are often linked to questions about the efficacies of plant defenses and hypotheses on their evolution in different plant guilds. We performed a series of meta-analyses to examine the importance of environmental and genetic sources of variation in secondary metabolites as well as the antiherbivore properties of different classes of defense. We found both environmental and genetic variation affect secondary metabolite production, supporting continued study of the carbon-nutrient balance and growth-differentiation balance hypotheses. Defenses in woody plants are more affected by genetic variation, and herbaceous plant defenses are more influenced by environmental variation. Plant defenses in agricultural and natural systems show similar responses to manipulations, as do plants in laboratory, greenhouse, or field studies. What does such variation mean to herbivores? A comparison of biotic, physical, and chemical defenses revealed the most effective defensive strategy for a plant is biotic mutualisms with ants. Fast-growing plants are most often defended with qualitative defenses and slow-growing plants with quantitative defenses, as the plant apparency and resource availability hypotheses predict. However, we found the resource availability hypothesis provides the best explanation for the evolution of plant defenses, but the fact that there is considerable genetic and environmental variation in defenses indicates herbivores can affect plant chemistry in ecological and evolutionary time.