Nitrogen Limitation and Slow Drying Induce Desiccation Tolerance in Conjugating Green Algae (Zygnematophyceae,Streptophyta) from Polar Habitats

Background

Filamentous Zygnematophyceae are typical components of algal mats in the polar hydro-terrestrial environment. Under field conditions, they form senescent vegetative cells, designated as pre-akinetes, which are tolerant to desiccation and osmotic stress.

Key Findings

Pre-akinete formation and desiccation tolerance was investigated experimentally under monitored laboratory conditions in four strains of Arctic and Antarctic isolates with vegetative Zygnema sp. morphology. Phylogenetic analyses of rbcL sequences revealed one Arctic strain as genus Zygnemopsis, phylogenetically distant from the closely related Zygnema strains. Algae were cultivated in liquid or on solidified medium (9 weeks), supplemented with or lacking nitrogen. Nitrogen-free cultures (liquid as well as solidified) consisted of well-developed pre-akinetes after this period. Desiccation experiments were performed at three different drying rates (rapid: 10% relative humidity, slow: 86% rh and very slow); viability, effective quantum yield of PS II, visual and ultrastructural changes were monitored. Recovery and viability of pre-akinetes were clearly dependent on the drying rate: slower desiccation led to higher levels of survival. Pre-akinetes survived rapid drying after acclimation by very slow desiccation.

Conclusions

The formation of pre-akinetes in polar Zygnema spp. and Zygnemopsis sp. is induced by nitrogen limitation. Pre-akinetes, modified vegetative cells, rather than specialized stages of the life cycle, can be hardened by mild desiccation stress to survive rapid drying. Naturally hardened pre-akinetes play a key role in stress tolerance and dispersal under the extreme conditions of polar regions, where sexual reproduction and production of dormant stages is largely suppressed.     

高山植物短管兔儿草光合作用特性及其对冰冻胁迫的反应

短管兔儿草为典型的高山植物,具较强的光合能力,但光合效率较低。叶片具有发达的通气贮气组织;栅栏组织发达,叶绿体基粒片层较少。短管兔儿草光合作用特性易受生长环境因素的影响。低温胁迫使短管兔儿草光合速率、光合量子产额降低。低温下的光照加剧了光合作用受抑制的程度。本研究表明,短管兔儿草具较强的抗冻能力,是研究植物抗冻机理及筛选抗冻基因的理想材料。     

高山植物短管兔儿草光合作用特性及其对冰冻胁迫的反应

短管兔儿草为典型的高山植物,具较强的光合能力,但光合效率较低。叶片具有发达的通气贮气组织;栅栏组织发达,叶绿体基粒片层较少。短管兔儿草光合作用特性易受生长环境因素的影响。低温胁迫使短管兔儿草光合速率、光合量子产额降低。低温下的光照加剧了光合作用受抑制的程度。本研究表明,短管兔儿草具较强的抗冻能力,是研究植物抗冻机理及筛选抗冻基因的理想材料。     

The Combined Effects of Desiccation and Irradiance on Mosses from Xeric and Hydric Habitats

The combined effects of desiccation and irradiance on the physiologyof the sand dune moss Tortula ruraliformis (Besch.) Grout andthe minerotrophic flush moss Dicranella palustris (Dicks.) Crundw.ex. E. F. Warb (D. squarrosa (Starke) Schp.) were studied. Damageas a result of desiccation in the dark, measured by loss ofprotein and the relative accumulation of thiobarbituric acid(TBA) reactive products (which gives an estimation of lipidperoxidation), was greater in D. palustris. Desiccation alonehad no effect on the total concentrations of chlorophyll andcarotenoids in either species. Water loss resulted in the cessationof measurable photosynthetic oxygen evolution in both species.Respiration was less sensitive to desiccation than was photosynthesis.A combination of irradiance and water stress prevented any recoveryof photosynthesis during subsequent rehydration in D. palustris,but suppressed recovery only marginally (at the highest irradiance)in T. ruraliformis. The loss of protein, chlorophyll, and carotenoids,and lipid peroxidation were all substantially increased in D.palustris desiccated in the light, but these same conditionsresulted in only minimal damage of T. ruraliformis. Continuousexposure to high irradiance was less deleterious to desiccatedthan hydrated T. ruraliformis. The data are discussed in relationto the habitat preferences of the two species, and also in relationto possible causal factors in the initiation of damage. Key words: Desiccation, mosses, oxidative damage, photo-oxidation     

The Response of Antarctic Sea Ice Algae to Changes in pH and CO2

Ocean acidification substantially alters ocean carbon chemistry and hence pH but the effects on sea ice formation and the CO₂ concentration in the enclosed brine channels are unknown. Microbial communities inhabiting sea ice ecosystems currently contribute 10–50% of the annual primary production of polar seas, supporting overwintering zooplankton species, especially Antarctic krill, and seeding spring phytoplankton blooms. Ocean acidification is occurring in all surface waters but the strongest effects will be experienced in polar ecosystems with significant effects on all trophic levels. Brine algae collected from McMurdo Sound (Antarctica) sea ice was incubated in situ under various carbonate chemistry conditions. The carbon chemistry was manipulated with acid, bicarbonate and bases to produce a pCO₂ and pH range from 238 to 6066 µatm and 7.19 to 8.66, respectively. Elevated pCO₂ positively affected the growth rate of the brine algal community, dominated by the unique ice dinoflagellate, Polarella glacialis. Growth rates were significantly reduced when pH dropped below 7.6. However, when the pH was held constant and the pCO₂ increased, growth rates of the brine algae increased by more than 20% and showed no decline at pCO₂ values more than five times current ambient levels. We suggest that projected increases in seawater pCO₂, associated with OA, will not adversely impact brine algal communities.     

Fatty Acid Composition of Algae from Habitats with Varying Amounts of Illumination

The fatty acid (FA) composition of algae Ulva fenestrata (Chlorophyta), Costaria costata (Phaeophyta), and Grateloupia turuturu (Rhodophyta) differed in their illumination habitats (shaded grotto and bright light). It was found that the light intensity affect the lipid content and fatty acid (FA) ratios in the algae. In the shaded places, the content of polyunsaturated FAs of the (n-3) series in U. fenestrate and of the (n-3) and (n-6) series, except 18 : 2, in C. costata are higher than at bright light, whereas in G. turuturu, the content of 20 : 5n-3 acids in that instance was lower. The lipid content was 2.5–3.6 times higher in the algae at low light intensity. The content variation of algal lipid components apparently was related to adaptive response of these plants to illumination condition.     

蓝藻对UV-B增强的响应与适应

平流层臭氧破坏导致地球表面紫外辐射(主要是UV-B)增强逐渐受到人们重视。由于蓝藻在生态系统中的重要性和在生物进化过程中的特殊性,用于研究UV-B对生物体的影响具有诸多优势。目前国内关于UV-B与蓝藻的研究报道较少,所以本文介绍了近年来国外该领域的相关研究,主要包括UV-B对蓝藻生物量、光合机构以及固氮等方面的影响,同时着重介绍了蓝藻对UV-B的适应策略。     

Response of N2-Fixing Cyanobacteria to Salt

The effect of salt on photosynthetic activity, acetylene reduction, and related activities was examined in two species of cyanobacteria, Nostoc muscorum and Calothrix scopulorum. Photosynthesis was more resistant to high salt concentration than was N₂ fixation. The salt resistance of both activities increased after a period of exposure of the cells to salinity. The transfer of electrons via ferredoxin and ferredoxin-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reductase was found to be extremely sensitive to salt. In comparison, the transfer of reducing power by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, isocitric dehydrogenase, and photosystem 1 was less affected by NaCl, whereas glutamine synthetase exhibited higher tolerance to salt.     

Variation in Sulfide Tolerance of Photosystem II in Phylogenetically Diverse Cyanobacteria from Sulfidic Habitats

Physiological and molecular phylogenetic approaches were used to investigate variation among 12 cyanobacterial strains in their tolerance of sulfide, an inhibitor of oxygenic photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria from sulfidic habitats were found to be phylogenetically diverse and exhibited an approximately 50-fold variation in photosystem II performance in the presence of sulfide. Whereas the degree of tolerance was positively correlated with sulfide levels in the environment, a strain's phenotype could not be predicted from the tolerance of its closest relatives. These observations suggest that sulfide tolerance is a dynamic trait primarily shaped by environmental variation. Despite differences in absolute tolerance, similarities among strains in the effects of sulfide on chlorophyll fluorescence induction indicated a common mode of toxicity. Based on similarities with treatments known to disrupt the oxygen-evolving complex, it was concluded that sulfide toxicity resulted from inhibition of the donor side of photosystem II.     

Response of the Photosynthetic Apparatus in Dunaliella salina (Green Algae) to Irradiance Stress

The response of the photosynthetic apparatus in the green alga Dunaliella salina, to irradiance stress was investigated. Cells were grown under physiological conditions at 500 millimoles per square meter per second (control) and under irradiance-stress conditions at 1700 millimoles per square meter per second incident intensity (high light, HL). In control cells, the light-harvesting antenna of photosystem I (PSI) contained 210 chlorophyll a/b molecules. It was reduced to 105 chlorophyll a/b in HL-grown cells. In control cells, the dominant form of photosystem II (PSII) was PSII_α(about 63% of the total PSII) containing >250 chlorophyll a/b molecules. The smaller antenna size PSII_β centers (about 37% of PSII) contained 135 ± 10 chlorophyll a/b molecules. In sharp contrast, the dominant form of PSII in HL-grown cells accounted for about 95% of all PSII centers and had an antenna size of only about 60 chlorophyll a molecules. This newly identified PSII unit is termed PSII_γ. The HL-grown cells showed a substantially elevated PSII/PSI stoichiometry ratio in their thylakoid membranes (PSII/PSI = 3.0/1.0) compared to that of control cells (PSII/PSI = 1.4/1.0). The steady state irradiance stress created a chronic photoinhibition condition in which D. salina thylakoids accumulate an excess of photochemically inactive PSII units. These PSII units contain both the reaction center proteins and the core chlorophyll-protein antenna complex but cannot perform a photochemical charge separation. The results are discussed in terms of regulatory mechanism(s) in the plant cell whose function is to alleviate the adverse effect of irradiance stress.     

Cyanobacteria from benthic mats of Antarctic lakes as a source of new bioactivities

Aims:  To exploit the cyanobacterial diversity of microbial mats growing in the benthic environment of Antarctic lakes for the discovery of novel antibiotic and antitumour activities.
Methods and results:  In all, 51 Antarctic cyanobacteria isolated from benthic mats were cultivated in the laboratory by optimizing temperature, irradiance and mixing. Productivity was generally very low (≤60 mg l⁻¹ d⁻¹) with growth rates ( μ ) in the range of 0·02–0·44 d⁻¹. Growth rates were limited by photosensitivity, sensitivity to air bubbling, polysaccharide production or cell aggregation. Despite this, 126 extracts were prepared from 48 strains and screened for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities. Seventeen cyanobacteria showed antimicrobial activity (against the Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus , the filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus or the yeast Cryptococcus neoformans ), and 25 were cytotoxic. The bioactivities were not in accordance with the phylogenetic grouping, but rather strain-specific. One active strain was cultivated in a 10-l photobioreactor.
Conclusions:  Isolation and mass cultivation of Antarctic cyanobacteria and LC-MS (liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry) fractionation of extracts from a subset of those strains (hits) that exhibited relatively potent antibacterial and/or antifungal activities, evidenced a chemical novelty worthy of further investigation.
Significance and impact of the study:  Development of isolation, cultivation and screening methods for Antarctic cyanobacteria has led to the discovery of strains endowed with interesting antimicrobial and antitumour activities.     

The Contributions of Sea Ice Algae to Antarctic Marine Primary Production

The seasonally ice-covered regions of the Southern Ocean havedistinctive ecological systems due to the growth of microalgaein sea ice. Although sea ice microalgal production is exceededby phytoplankton production on an annual basis in most offshoreregions of the Southern Ocean, blooms of sea ice algae differconsiderably from the phytoplankton in terms of timing and distribution.Thus sea ice algae provide food resources for higher trophiclevel organisms in seasons and regions where water column biologicalproduction is low or negligible. A flux of biogenic materialfrom sea ice to the water column and benthos follows ice melt,and some of the algal species are known to occur in ensuingphytoplankton blooms. A review of algal species in pack iceand offshore plankton showed that dominance is common for threespecies: Phaeocystis antarctica, Fragilariopsis cylindrus andFragilariopsis curta. The degree to which dominance by thesespecies is a product of successional processes in sea ice communitiescould be an important in determining their biogeochemical contributionto the Southern Ocean and their ability to seed blooms in marginalice zones.     

Desiccation tolerance and drought acclimation in the Antarctic collembolan Cryptopygus antarcticus

The availability of water is recognized as the most important determinant of the distribution and activity of terrestrial organisms within the maritime Antarctic. Within this environment, arthropods may be challenged by drought stress during both the austral summer, due to increased temperature, wind, insolation, and extended periods of reduced precipitation, and the winter, as a result of vapor pressure gradients between the surrounding icy environment and the body fluids. The purpose of the present study was to assess the desiccation tolerance of the Antarctic springtail, Cryptopygus antarcticus, under ecologically-relevant conditions characteristic of both summer and winter along the Antarctic Peninsula. In addition, this study examined the physiological changes and effects of mild drought acclimation on the subsequent desiccation tolerance of C. antarcticus. The collembolans possessed little resistance to water loss under dry air, as the rate of water loss was >20% h(-1) at 0% relative humidity (RH) and 4 degrees C. Even under ecologically-relevant desiccating conditions, the springtails lost water at all relative humidities below saturation (100% RH). However, slow dehydration at high RH dramatically increased the desiccation tolerance of C. antarcticus, as the springtails tolerated a greater loss of body water. Relative to animals maintained at 100% RH, a mild drought acclimation at 98.2% RH significantly increased subsequent desiccation tolerance. Drought acclimation was accompanied by the synthesis and accumulation of several sugars and polyols that could function to stabilize membranes and proteins during dehydration. Drought acclimation may permit C. antarcticus to maintain activity and thereby allow sufficient time to utilize behavioral strategies to reduce water loss during periods of reduced moisture availability. The springtails were also susceptible to desiccation at subzero temperatures in equilibrium with the vapor pressure of ice; they lost approximately 40% of their total body water over 28 d when cooled to -3.0 degrees C. The concentration of solutes in the remaining body fluids as a result of dehydration, together with the synthesis of several osmolytes, dramatically increased the body fluid osmotic pressure. This increase corresponded to a depression of the melting point to approximately -2.2 degrees C, and may therefore allow C. antarcticus to survive much of the Antarctic winter in a cryoprotectively dehydrated state.