Activation of transglutaminase during embryonic development

Incorporation of [3H]putrescine into proteins was shown to increase markedly in sea urchin eggs upon fertilization. Emetine, an inhibitor of protein synthesis, had no effect on the rate of protein labeling. However, the reaction could be prevented by the addition of 2-[3-(diallylamino)-propionyl]benzothiophene, a noncompetitive inhibitor of transglutaminase, and also by dansylcadaverine, which is a substrate for transglutaminase. The inert N alpha-dimethyl analogue of dansylcadaverine had no influence. Considering the complexity of the incorporation of the [3H]putrescine tracer in this system, it was deemed essential to prove by rigorous analytical methods that the reaction was, indeed, consistent with a transglutaminase mechanism. gamma-Glutamyl[3H]putrescine could be recovered in 80-90% yield from the proteolytic digest of proteins from the 20-min fertilized cell. Another sign of the in vivo activity of transglutaminase was the isolation of substantial amounts of epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine from proteins of sea urchin embryo, yielding a frequency value for this cross-link as high as 1 mol/400 000 g of protein in the 32-cell-stage material.     

Hardening of the sea urchin fertilization envelope by peroxidase-catalyzed phenolic coupling of tyrosines

Within minutes after its elevation from the egg surface, the sea urchin fertilization envelope (FE) becomes "hardened" by a reaction that renders it resistant to agents that solubilize, denature or degrade most proteins. Peroxidase activity is released into the surrounding seawater from Stronglyocentrotus purpuratus eggs during fertilization. Evidence from several sources indicate that the catalytic action of the peroxidase is responsible for hardening the FE through the phenolic coupling of tyrosyl residues of the FE proteins. First, the peroxidase is localized within the hardened FE and within the crystalline FE precursor material released from egg cortical granules during the fertilization reaction. Second, a direct correlation is established between the effectiveness of compounds in inhibiting the cortical granule peroxidase (CGP) and their effectiveness in inhibiting hardening of the FE. Third, the CGP catalyzes the cross-linking of tyrosines in solution, a reaction known to be catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Fourth, acid hydrolysates of hardened FEs contain cross-linked tyrosines that are identified by comparing their chromatographic ultraviolet absorption and fluorescent characteristics to those known for cross-linked tyrosines formed by HRP. Finally, when eggs are fertilized in the presence of 125I, the CGP heavily labels proteins of the FE and of the crystalline FE precursor material released with the enzyme from the cortical granules. The iodide label reflects the localization of the CGP and may reflect the sites of peroxidase-generated tyrosyl phenyl radicals involved in the tyrosine coupling reaction. Maximal iodide labeling occurs during the first 5 min period following fertilization, corresponding to the period of FE hardening.     

Inhibition of mitosis in fertilized sea urchin eggs by inhibition of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase

Inhibition of cAMP-dependent protein kinase activity by microinjection of a specific physiologic protein inhibitor into sea urchin eggs inhibits the first cleavage after fertilization. Inhibition apparently occurs at some time prior to or during formation of the mitotic spindle. Measurement of the total protein kinase activity of sea urchin egg homogenates after fertilization showed that cAMP-dependent phosphorylation increases after fertilization and then declines prior to or at the time of the first cleavage. It is concluded that a cAMP-dependent phosphorylation plays a significant role in events leading to regulation of mitotic spindle assembly.     

Motility and centrosomal organization during sea urchin and mouse fertilization

Motility and the behavior and inheritance of centrosomes are investigated during mouse and sea urchin fertilization. Sperm incorporation in sea urchins requires microfilament activity in both sperm and eggs as tested with Latrunculin A, a novel inhibitor of microfilament assembly. In contrast the mouse spermhead is incorporated in the presence of microfilament inhibitors indicating an absence of microfilament activity at this stage. Pronuclear apposition is arrested by microfilament inhibitors in fertilized mouse oocytes. The migrations of the sperm and egg nuclei during sea urchin fertilization are dependent on microtubules organized into a radial monastral array, the sperm aster. Microtubule activity is also required during pronuclear apposition in the mouse egg, but they are organized by numerous egg cytoplasmic sites. By the use of an autoimmune antibody to centrosomal material, centrosomes are detected in sea urchin sperm but not in unfertilized eggs. The sea urchin centrosome expands and duplicates during first interphase and condenses to form the mitotic poles during division. Remarkably mouse sperm do not appear to have the centrosomal antigen and instead centrosomes are found in the unfertilized oocyte. These results indicate that both microfilaments and microtubules are required for the successful completion of fertilization in both sea urchins and mice, but at different stages. Furthermore they demonstrate that centrosomes are contributed by the sperm during sea urchin fertilization, but they might be maternally inherited in mammals.     

Protein tyrosine kinase-dependent release of intracellular calcium in the sea urchin egg

The aminoguanide, methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone) (MGBG), was shown to stimulate phosphorylation of RR-SRC, a synthetic protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) substrate, and different levels of tyrosyl phosphorylation of endogenous proteins in a sea urchin egg membrane-cortex preparation. Stimulating protein tyrosine kinase activity in the sea urchin egg stimulated intracellular Ca2+ release, because microinjection of 1-5 mM of MGBG into unfertilized eggs triggered a transient rise in intracellular Ca2+ activity ([Ca2+]i) after a brief latent period. Pretreating eggs with PTK-specific inhibitors, genistein or tyrphostin B42, significantly inhibited the MGBG-induced rise in [Ca2+]i. Methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone) stimulation of PTK activities in the unfertilized sea urchin egg appeared to trigger Ca2+ release through phospholipase C (PLC)-dependent inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) production. The MGBG-induced Ca2+ response could be suppressed in eggs preloaded with the InsP3 receptor antagonist, heparin, and was reduced in eggs pretreated with U73122, a PLC inhibitor. However, the response was unchanged in eggs treated with nicotinamide, an inhibitor of ADP-ribosyl cyclase, or nifedipine, an inhibitor of nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate activity. These results suggest that MGBG may be useful as a chemical agonist of PTK in sea urchin eggs and allow direct testing of the PTK requirement for the transient rise in [Ca2+]i in sea urchin eggs during fertilization. Although genistein was observed to significantly delay the onset, the sperm-induced Ca2+ response in PTK inhibitor-loaded eggs otherwise appeared normal. Therefore, it was concluded that sea urchin eggs contain a PTK-dependent pathway that can mediate intracellular Ca2+ release, but PTK activity does not appear to be required for the fertilization response.     

Role of specialized microvilli and the fertilization envelope in the spatial positioning of blastomeres in early development of embryos of the starfish Astropecten scoparius

In the eggs of a wide range of animal species, various factors that determine the blastomeres' presumptive fate are known to locate unevenly within the egg. In the embryos of these animals, cleavage occurs not just to increase cell numbers, but also to distribute the factors to the respective blastomeres, resulting in cell specialization at the later stages. In the early cleavage stages, before the establishment of a device such as desmosomes to directly join the blastomeres, some other means is needed to keep the blastomeres together and maintain the relative positions among them. In this study, we found that the embryos of the starfish Astropecten scoparius lack the hyaline layer seen in sea urchin embryos and that blastomeres adhere to the fertilization envelope (FE) via filamentous cellular projections (fixing processes). Electron microscopy revealed the fixing processes to be specialized microvilli formed, after the elevation of the FE, by the elongation of short microvilli that pre-exist in unfertilized eggs. After the first cleavage, the two blastomeres separate from each other and finally attach to the FE. In the subsequent cleavages, the blastomeres undergo repeated cell division without separating from the FE. Between the blastomeres and the FE, only shortened fixing processes were observed. Destruction of the fixing processes caused release of the blastomeres from the FE and disturbance of the relative positions of the blastomeres, resulting in abnormal development of the embryos. These observations suggest that the fixing process is a device to keep the egg placed centrally in the FE up to the first cleavage, and after the first cleavage and beyond to anchor the blastomeres to the FE so that the FE can be used as a scaffold for morphogenesis. Electron microscopy also suggests that the inner layer of the FE, which is derived from the contents of cortical granules, reinforces the adhesion of the fixing processes to the FE. Immuno-electron microscopy, using an antibody against sea urchin hyaline layer, showed that the inner layer of the FE of starfish eggs and the hyaline layer of sea urchin eggs, which are both derived from cortical granules, contain some common elements.     

Cross fertilization between sea urchin eggs and oyster spermatozoa

Interphylum crossing was examined between sea urchin eggs (Temnopleurus hardwicki) and oyster sperm (Crassostrea gigas). The eggs could receive the spermatozoa with or without cortical change. The fertilized eggs that elevated the fertilization envelope began their embryogenesis. Electron microscopy revealed that oyster spermatozoa underwent acrosome reaction on the sea urchin vitelline coat, and their acrosomal membrane fused with the egg plasma membrane after the appearance of an intricate membranous structure in the boundary between the acrosomal process and the egg cytoplasm. Oyster spermatozoa penetrated sometimes into sea urchin eggs without stimulating cortical granule discharge and consequently without fertilization envelope formation. The organelles derived from oyster spermatozoa seemed to be functionally inactive in the eggs whose cortex remained unchanged.     

Alpha-actinin from sea urchin eggs: biochemical properties, interaction with actin, and distribution in the cell during fertilization and cleavage

A protein similar to alpha-actinin has been isolated from unfertilized sea urchin eggs. This protein co-precipitated with actin from an egg extract as actin bundles. Its apparent molecular weight was estimated to be approximately 95,000 on an SDS gel: it co-migrated with skeletal-muscle alpha-actinin. This protein also co-eluted with skeletal muscle alpha-actinin from a gel filtration column giving a Stokes radius of 7.7 nm, and its amino acid composition was very similar to that of alpha-actinins. It reacted weakly but significantly with antibodies against chicken skeletal muscle alpha-actinin. We designated this protein as sea urchin egg alpha-actinin. The appearance of sea urchin egg alpha-actinin as revealed by electron microscopy using the low-angle rotary shadowing technique was also similar to that of skeletal muscle alpha-actinin. This protein was able to cross-link actin filaments side by side to form large bundles. The action of sea urchin egg alpha-actinin on the actin filaments was studied by viscometry at a low-shear rate. It gelled the F-actin solution at a molar ratio to actin of more than 1:20, at pH 6-7.5, and at Ca ion concentration less than 1 microM. The effect was abolished by the presence of tropomyosin. Distribution of this protein in the egg during fertilization and cleavage was investigated by means of microinjection of the rhodamine-labeled protein in the living eggs. This protein showed a uniform distribution in the cytoplasm in the unfertilized eggs. Upon fertilization, however, it was concentrated in the cell cortex, including the fertilization cone. At cleavage, it seemed to be concentrated in the cleavage furrow region.     

Role of phospholipase Cgamma at fertilization and during mitosis in sea urchin eggs and embryos

It is well known that stimulation of egg metabolism after fertilization is due to a rise in intracellular free calcium concentration. In sea urchin eggs, this first calcium signal is followed by other calcium transients that allow progression through mitotic control points of the cell cycle of the early embryo. How sperm induces these calcium transients is still far from being understood. In sea urchin eggs, both InsP3 and ryanodine receptors contribute to generate the fertilization calcium transient, while the InsP3 receptor generates the subsequent mitotic calcium transients. The identity of the mechanisms that generate InsP3 after fertilization remains an enigma. In order to determine whether PLCgamma might be the origin of the peaks of InsP3 production that punctuate the first mitotic cell cycles of the fertilized sea urchin egg, we have amplified by RT-PCR several fragments of sea urchin PLCgamma containing the two SH2 domains. The sequence shares similarities with SH2 domains of PLCgamma from mammals. One fragment was subcloned into a bacterial expression plasmid and a GST-fusion protein was produced and purified. Antibodies raised to the GST fusion protein demonstrate the presence of PLCgamma protein in eggs. Microinjection of the fragment into embryos interferes with mitosis. A related construct made from bovine PLCgamma also delayed or prevented entry into mitosis and blocked or prolonged metaphase. The bovine construct also blocked the calcium transient at fertilization, in contrast to a tandem SH2 control construct which did not inhibit either fertilization or mitosis. Our data indicate that PLCgamma plays a key role during fertilization and early development.     

Quantitation of a src-like tyrosine protein kinase during fertilization of the sea urchin egg

Fertilization of the sea urchin egg is known to involve an increase in overall protein tyrosine kinase activity which precede the first cell division. In order to determine the types of tyrosine kinases that are involved in fertilization, we have used immunological and other criteria to identify a c-src related protein kinase in eggs of the sea urchin L. variegatus. Using an immune complex assay, we have measured the level of this c-src related protein kinase during fertilization and early embryonic development. Fertilization results in a decrease in the c-src kinase detectable by this technique suggesting that c-src does not contribute to the fertilization induced increase in protein tyrosine kinase activity.     

Relation of cytoplasmic alkalinization to microvillar elongation and microfilament formation in the sea urchin egg

Experiments have been carried out to test the proposal that the pH increase at fertilization in sea urchin eggs promotes microvillar elongation. Results presented herein show that microvillar elongation and microfilament formation occurred when sea urchin eggs were incubated in sodium-free seawater containing the calcium ionophore A23187, a treatment which initiates activation, i.e., induces a transient increase in intracellular free calcium, but prevents subsequent cytoplasmic alkalinization. Within elongated microvilli and cortices of these eggs, microfilaments were arranged in a loose meshwork. However, if the pH of the egg cytoplasm was increased experimentally, microfilament bundles appeared within individual microvilli. These findings suggest that: (1) microvillar elongation and microfilament formation in the sea urchin egg at fertilization may occur when cytoplasmic alkalinization is inhibited, and (2) formation of the microvillus bundle of microfilaments at egg activation is pH sensitive. Additionally, if the cytoplasmic pH of unfertilized eggs was experimentally elevated by NH₄Cl, microvilli failed to elongate. These data indicate that elevation of intracellular pH by this method is not sufficient to induce microvillar elongation.     

Cloning and characterization of a phospholipase C-beta isoform from the sea urchin Lytechinus pictus

Calcium is a ubiquitous intracellular signaling molecule controlling a wide array of cellular processes including fertilization and egg activation. The mechanism for triggering intracellular Ca(2+) release in sea urchin eggs during fertilization is the generation of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate by phospholipase C (PLC) hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate. Of the five PLC isoforms identified in mammals (beta, gamma, delta, epsilon and zeta), only PLCgamma and PLCdelta have been detected in echinoderms. Here, we provide direct evidence of the presence of a PLCbeta isoform, named suPLCbeta, within sea urchin eggs. The coding sequence was cloned from eggs of Lytechinus pictus and determined to have the greatest degree of homology and identity with the mammalian PLCbeta4. The presence of suPLCbeta within the egg was verified using a specifically generated antibody. The majority of the enzyme is localized in the non-soluble fraction, presumably the plasma membrane of the unfertilized egg. This distribution remains unchanged 1 min postfertilization. Unlike PLCbeta4, suPLCbeta is activated by G protein betagamma subunits, and this activity is Ca(2+)-dependent. In contrast to all known PLCbeta enzymes, suPLCbeta is not activated by Galphaq-GTPgammaS subunit suggesting other protein regulators may be present in sea urchin eggs.     

False fertilization in sea urchin eggs induced by diabolin, a 120K kelp protein

A 120K lectin-like protein was isolated from the kelp Laminaria diabolica (Oni-kombu), with a unique activity to induce false fertilization specifically in the eggs of the sea urchin Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. The protein designated as "diabolin" rendered the unfertilized egg forms and elevated the fertilization envelope without insemination at 18 nM half-maximally. Those eggs with elevated fertilization envelopes, however, could not enter into normal cleavage or further development, and hence the proliferation of the sea urchin was hindered. Diabolin, thus, by its unique defense mechanism protects the kelp from the predator sea urchin. It was partially sequenced and found to have the highest homology with phytoene dehydrogenase from the plant virus Erwinia uredovora. A question was left to be solved as to how the kelp on the southeast coast of Hokkaido Island could develop the defense mechanism against the sea urchin on Honshu Island separated by Tsugaru Straits.     

An intermediate state of fertilization involved in internalization of sperm components

The pathway of sperm entry during sea urchin fertilization was analyzed by using sperm covalently labeled with fluorescent and radioactive tracers. Sperm that have been covalently labeled on their surfaces with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or a radioactive congener, diiodofluorescein isothiocyanate (¹²⁵IFC), transfer labeled components to the egg that persist throughout early development. In order to study the transfer of sperm components and their fate after fertilization, cytochalasin B-dependent inhibition of fertilization, previously shown to permit the cortical reaction of sea urchin eggs but block sperm pronuclear incorporation, was investigated. Under certain conditions cytochalasin B or D (CB or CD) results in about half of the activated eggs having both the sperm nucleus and the fluorescently labeled sperm components arrested apparently at the level of the egg plasma membrane. This arrest of internalization was reversed by removal of CB or CD, and the sperm derivatives entered the egg. When sperm were labeled noncovalently with ethidium bromide or rhodamine 123, fluorescence was transferred to the egg in the cytochalasin-inhibited state in a fashion similar to that found in normal fertilization; in both cases the sperm fluorescence disappeared within a few minutes of fertilization, due to the repartitioning of the noncovalent dyes into the egg cytoplasm. It is concluded that cytochalasin arrests fertilization at an intermediate step in which the sperm has fused with the egg to achieve cytoplasmic continuity, but in which the subsequent internalization of sperm components is inhibited. After removal of cytochalasins the fluorescent sperm components move from the egg surface to an internal site, a process that can be monitored by time-lapse video microscopy with an image intensifier to permit extended observations of sperm fluorescence. The cytoplasmic location of labeled sperm components was substantiated by autoradiography of early embryos fertilized with ¹²⁵IFC-labeled sperm; transfer of sperm components to an internal site was seen after fertilization of either sea urchin or mouse eggs. Taken together, the data suggest that the fate of the labeled sperm surface components, as well as that of the sperm nucleus, is to be transferred to the egg cytoplasm, and that this transfer is mediated by the actin-dependent cytoskeleton of the egg.     

Fertilization envelope assembly in sea urchin eggs inseminated in Cl− deficient sea water: I. Morphological effects

Elevation and hardening of the fertilization envelope (FE) occur within 15 min following insemination of the sea urchin egg. When chloride ions were replaced in the media with various anion substitutes, including methyl sulfonate, nitrates, bromide, and isethionate, the fertilization envelope failed to harden and collapsed back to the surface of the egg of Lytechinus variegatus, L. pictus, and Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. At the light microscopy level, the collapse of the envelope was accompanied by a decrease in birefringence, compared with controls. When examined with electron microscopy, the FEs of eggs inseminated in reduced Cl^? solutions failed to transform from an amorphous layer into the more robust laminar structure observed around eggs incubated in normal sea water. Furthermore, in the case of S. purpuratus, the I-T transformation of the FE did not occur. When transfer of the inseminated eggs from the Cl^?-deficient sea water to normal sea water was carried out before 10 min elapsed, the envelope did not collapse, and the birefringence of the envelope was similar to that of controls. Partial envelope collapse was also observed in a dose-dependent manner, varying with the concentration of the Cl^? in the sea water solution. The results suggest that lack of Cl^? in the media may interfere with proper fertilization envelope assembly. Possible mechanisms, including proper incorporation of the cortical granule exudate into the nascent envelope structure, are discussed.     

Function of a sea urchin egg Src family kinase in initiating Ca2+ release at fertilization

Egg activation at fertilization requires the release of Ca(2+) from the egg's endoplasmic reticulum, and recent evidence has indicated that a Src family kinase (SFK) may function in initiating this signaling pathway in echinoderm eggs. Here, we identify and characterize a SFK from the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, SpSFK1. SpSFK1 RNA is present in eggs, and an antibody made against a SpSFK1 peptide recognizes an approximately 58-kDa egg membrane-associated protein in eggs of S. purpuratus as well as another sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. Injection of both species of sea urchin eggs with dominant-interfering Src homology 2 domains of SpSFK1 delays and reduces the release of Ca(2+) at fertilization. Injection of an antibody against SpSFK1 into S. purpuratus eggs also causes a small increase in the delay between sperm-egg fusion and Ca(2+) release. In contrast, when injected into eggs of L. variegatus, this same antibody has a dramatic stimulatory effect: it causes PLCgamma-dependent Ca(2+) release like that occurring at fertilization. Correspondingly, in lysates of L. variegatus eggs, but not S. purpuratus eggs, the antibody stimulates SFK activity. Injection of L. variegatus eggs with another antibody that recognizes the L. variegatus egg SFK also causes PLCgamma-dependent Ca(2+) release like that at fertilization. These results indicate that activation of a Src family kinase present in sea urchin eggs is necessary to cause Ca(2+) release at fertilization and is capable of stimulating Ca(2+) release in the unfertilized egg via PLCgamma, as at fertilization.     

Latrunculin inhibits the microfilament-mediated processes during fertilization, cleavage and early development in sea urchins and mice

Latrunculin A, a marine toxin from a Red Sea sponge, is a potent inhibitor of the microfilament-mediated processes of fertilization and early development in sea urchins and in mice. Sperm from sea urchins, but not those from Limulus or mice, were affected by latrunculin, and fertilization in both sea urchins and in mice was arrested but at different stages. Sea urchin sperm treated with 2.6 microM latrunculin are unable to assemble acrosomal processes and their ability to fertilize eggs is impaired. The unwinding of the Limulus sperm acrosomal process occurs in the presence of latrunculin. Treated mouse sperm are able to fertilize mouse oocytes in vitro, suggesting that microfilaments may not be required in this mammalian sperm. In sea urchin eggs, sperm incorporation, microvillar elongation and cytokinesis are inhibited. Microtubule-mediated motility occurs normally. 20 nM latrunculin prevents the morphogenetic movements during gastrulation. It reduces the viscosity of actin gels from sea urchin egg homogenates. In unfertilized mouse oocytes, it prevents the colcemid-induced dispersion of the meiotic chromosomes; accumulations of cortical actin are noted adjacent to the scattered chromosomes. Sperm incorporation during mouse fertilization in vitro is unaffected suggesting that sperm entry may occur independent of microfilament activity in mammals. However, the apposition of the pronuclei at the center of the egg cytoplasm does not occur, providing evidence that cytoplasmic microfilaments may be required for the motions leading to pronuclear union during mouse fertilization. It inhibits the second polar body formation and cytokinesis. These results indicate that latrunculin is a potent inhibitor of microfilament-mediated processes in sperm, eggs and embryos, and that it may prove to be a powerful new drug for exploring the cellular behavior of microfilaments in the maintenance of cell shape and during motility.     

Studies of the mechanism of the electrical polyspermy block using voltage clamp during cross-species fertilization

Prevention of polyspermic fertilization in sea urchins (Jaffe, 1976, Nature (Lond.). 261:68-71) and the worm Urechis (Gould-Somero, Jaffe, and Holland, 1979, J. Cell Biol. 82:426-440) involves an electrically mediated fast block. The fertilizing sperm causes a positive shift in the egg's membrane potential; this fertilization potential prevents additional sperm entries. Since in Urechis the egg membrane potential required to prevent fertilization is more positive than in the sea urchin, we tested whether in a cross-species fertilization the blocking voltage is determined by the species of the egg or by the species of the sperm. With some sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) females, greater than or equal to 90% of the eggs were fertilized by Urechis sperm; a fertilization potential occurred, the fertilization envelope elevated, and sometimes decondensing Urechis sperm nuclei were found in the egg cytoplasm. After insemination of sea urchin eggs with Urechis sperm during voltage clamp at +50 mV, fertilization (fertilization envelope elevation) occurred in only nine of twenty trials, whereas, at +20 mV, fertilization occurred in ten of ten trials. With the same concentration of sea urchin sperm, fertilization of sea urchin eggs occurred, in only two of ten trials at +20 mV. These results indicate that the blocking voltage for fertilization in these crosses is determined by the sperm species, consistent with the hypothesis that the fertilization potential may block the translocation within the egg membrane of a positively charged component of the sperm.     

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SEA URCHIN EGGS III. VISCO-ELASTICITY OF THE CELL SURFACE

When a sea urchin egg was compressed between two parallel plates, the force required to keep the distance between the plates constant gradually decreased with time. The contours of the compressed egg were different from the contours expected from the assumption that the surface forces are uniform over the entire surface. The surface forces of the egg without deformation computed from the area of the cell surface in contact with the substratum, the density of the egg and its size were 0.02–0.04 dynes/cm in Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. Larger values were obtained in eggs during compression. Surface forces, which were computed from measurements of the form of the egg and the applied force when the egg was deformed by a rod and a plate supporting the egg, increased as the deformation increased.
From these results, it was concluded that the cell surface is visco-elastic in sea urchin eggs.     

Microvillar elongation following parthenogenetic activation of sea urchin eggs

Parthenogenetic activation of unfertilized sea urchin eggs with ammonium chloride at pH 8.0 resulted in a slow, but dramatic, reorganization of surface microvilli in four species of sea urchin eggs. Following NH4Cl treatment, elongation of microvilli on the egg surface was observed concomitant with the formation of microfilament bundles within the microvillar cores. A minimum of 2 h of treatment was required for elongation and microfilament bundle formation to occur. The maintenance of elongated microvilli was pH-sensitive; removal of the activating agent resulted in the retraction of extended microvilli while readdition of NH4Cl caused microvilli to elongate again. Accompanying microvillar elongation in activated eggs, there was an increased calcium uptake as measured by 45Ca uptake. Blocking calcium uptake by incubation in lanthanum chloride or zero-calcium seawater containing 2 mM EGTA prevented microvillar elongation. These results suggested that elongation of microvilli following parthenogenetic activation by NH4Cl is pH- and calcium-dependent and is similar to that observed during normal fertilization.