Interannual Variability in Terrestrial Net Primary Production: Exploration of Trends and Controls on Regional to Global Scales

Climate and biophysical regulation of terrestrial plant production and interannual responses to anomalous events were investigated using the NASA Ames model version of CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) in a transient simulation mode. This ecosystem model has been calibrated for simulations driven by satellite vegetation index data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) over the mid-1980s. Relatively large net source fluxes of carbon were estimated from terrestrial vegetation about 6 months to 1 year following El Niño events of 1983 and 1987, whereas the years 1984 and 1988 showed a drop in net primary production (NPP) of 1–2 Pg (10¹⁵ g) C from their respective previous years. Zonal discrimination of model results implies that the northern hemisphere low latitudes could account for almost the entire 2 Pg C decrease in global terrestrial NPP predicted from 1983 to 1984. Model estimates further suggest that from 1985 to 1988, the northern middle-latitude zone (between 30° and 60°N) was the principal region driving progressive increases in NPP, mainly by an expanded growing season moving toward the zonal latitude extremes. Comparative regional analysis of model controls on NPP reveals that although Normalized Difference Vegetation Index “greenness” can alone account for 30%–90% of the variation in NPP interannual anomalies, temperature or radiation loading can have a fairly significant 1-year lag effect on annual NPP at middle- to high-latitude zones, whereas rainfall amount and temperature drying effects may carry over with at least a 2-year lag time to influence NPP in semiarid tropical zones.     

中国东部南北样带主要植被类型物候期的变化

植被物候期的变化是全球变化研究的热点问题, 因为物候过程是反映植被对气候变化响应的最直接和最敏感的生态学过程之一, 大尺度植被物候学过程主要以植被的季节动态体现其对气候变化的长期适应过程。基于NOAA/AVHRR从1982年至2006年的双周归一化植被指数NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index)数据, 依托中国东部南北样带, 对主要植被类型的物候过程进行模拟, 并计算了主要物候现象(包括返青起始期、休眠起始期和生长季长度)的发生时间和演变趋势。结果表明: 返青起始期显著提前的植被有温带针叶林(TCF, 0.56 d·a^-1)、温带草丛(TG, 0.66 d·a^-1)、亚热带热带针叶林(STCF, 0.46 d·a^-1)、亚热带落叶阔叶林(SDBF, 0.58 d·a^-1)和亚热带热带草丛(STG, 0.89 d·a^-1); 休眠起始期显著推迟的植被有寒温带温带针叶林(TCTCF, 0.32 d·a^-1)、SDBF (0.80 d·a^-1)和温带落叶阔叶林(TDBF, 0.18 d·a^-1); 此外, 大部分植被类型的生长季长度都有所延长, 但延长的方式不同: TCF (0.77 d·a^-1)是由于返青起始期显著提前造成的; TCTCF (0.38 d·a^-1)和TDBF (0.36 d·a^-1)是由于休眠起始期显著推迟造成的; TG (0.76 d·a^-1)、STCF (0.83 d·a^-1)、SDBF (1.40 d·a^-1)和STG (1.30 d·a^-1)等是由于返青起始期提前和休眠起始期推迟共同造成的。对温度和降水的变化进行分析发现, 温度对南北样带上植被物候的影响较大, 而降水对物候的影响相对较小, 不同植被类型对温度的响应各异。在南北样带上存在的热量梯度, 使得整条样带上植被的物候现象也表现出时间梯度, 从返青起始期发生的时间上比较, 从北向南逐渐推迟, 即寒温带植被>温带植被>亚热带植被; 休眠起始期和生长季长度则正好相反, 亚热带植被>温带植被>寒温带植被。     

2001年以来宝鸡地区植被覆盖时空演变及驱动力分析

植被在全球变化中影响着地-气系统的能量平衡,是自然和人文因素对环境影响的敏感指标。分析地表植被的覆盖现状并探究影响植被变化的驱动力因素对区域生态恢复以及区域经济发展和区域生态文明建设都有促进作用。本研究基于中分辨率成像光谱仪-归一化植被指数（MODIS-NDVI）数据,结合宝鸡11个气象站的气温和降水量实测数据、净初级生产力（NPP）以及宝鸡统计年鉴数据,采用趋势分析方法、Pearson相关分析法、主成分分析方法对2001-2013年宝鸡地区植被覆盖的时空演化特征进行了分析,并对自然驱动因子和人为驱动因子双重影响下的宝鸡地区植被覆盖演化状况进行了综合评价。结果显示：（1）2001-2013年宝鸡地区年均NDVI以0.025/10a的速度上升,比三北防护林工程区1982-2006年植被覆盖的增速（0.007/10a）快,且2001-2002年、2003-2004年两个年份段为年均NDVI值的两次高恢复期;（2）植被覆盖以轻度改善为主,基本不变和中度改善次之,严重退化和中度退化最弱。植被覆盖恢复状况整体上呈稳中上升的趋势（个别地区除外）;（3）自然因素中的降水量和NPP是制约植被生长的主要因素。整体来看,人为因素相对于自然因素对宝鸡全区的植被覆盖影响较大,贡献率在90%左右,呈先减小后增加的趋势。     

全球土壤含水量对植被和气候的响应

气候、植被和土壤含水量(Soil Moisture,SM)的变化密切相关,分析长时间序列SM、植被覆盖、气温和降雨的变化以及植被、气候对SM的影响,有助于揭示全球变暖背景下土壤含水量-植被-大气间相互作用关系,为水资源短缺、土地退化、水资源保护等生态环境问题提供理论支持。以全球MODIS产品和ERA5-Land为数据源,获取2001-2020年0-7 cm土壤层中的含水量SM1、7-28 cm土壤层中的含水量SM2、28-100 cm土壤层中的含水量SM3、28-289 cm土壤层中的含水量SM4、降雨、气温和归一化植被指数(Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI)时序数据集,采用Sen趋势分析(Theil-Sen Median)、非参数统计检验(Mann-Kendall)、偏相关分析和复相关分析等方法,探究全球不同干湿气候区SM、降雨、气温和NDVI的时空变化特征及SM对降雨、气温和NDVI的响应关系。结果显示:(1)近20年来,全球不同干湿气候区SM总体呈现下降趋势,植被覆盖总体呈上升趋势;降雨量具体表现为\"增-减-增\"的变化趋势;气温总体呈上升趋势。(2)不同干湿气候区,SM与降雨的相关性随土壤深度的增加而减弱;除湿润区外,SM与NDVI均在SM2土壤层呈现较高的偏相关关系;除SM1土壤层外,不同干湿气候区SM与气温呈显著的负相关关系;除极干旱区,SM随土壤深度的增加对气温的敏感性减弱。(3)通过复相关分析探究各因子的驱动区(共同驱动区、气候驱动区、植被驱动区),SM变化主要受气候和NDVI的共同影响,受NDVI主导的区域面积较少,随着土壤深度的加深受气候主导的区域面积逐渐减小。     

Current Distribution of Ecosystem Functional Types in Temperate South America

We described, classified, and mapped the functional heterogeneity of temperate South America using the seasonal dynamics of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from NOAA/AVHRR satellites for a 10-year period. From the seasonal curves of NDVI, we calculated (a) the annual integral (NDVI-1), used as an estimate of the fraction of photosynthetic active radiation absorbed by the canopy and hence of primary production, (b) the relative annual range of NDVI (RREL), and (c) the date of maximum NDVI (MMAX), both of which were used to capture the seasonality of primary production. NDVI-1 decreased gradually from the northeastern part of the study region (southern Brazil and Uruguay) toward the southwest (Patagonia). High precipitation areas dominated by rangelands had higher NDVI-1 and lower RREL values than neighboring areas dominated by crops. The relative annual range of NDVI was maximum for the northern portion of the Argentine pampas (high cover of summer crops) and the subantarctic forests in southern Chile (high cover of deciduous tree species). More than 25% of the area showed an NDVI peak in November. Around 40% of the area presented the maximum NDVI during summer. The pampas showed areas with sharp differences in the timing of the NDVI peak associated with different agricultural systems. In the southern pampas, NDVI peaked early (October–November); whereas in the northeastern pampas, NDVI peaked in late summer (February). We classified temperate South America into 19 ecosystem functional types (EFT). The methodology used to define EFTs has advantages over traditional approaches for land classification that are based on structural features. First, the NDVI traits used have a clear biological meaning. Second, remote-sensing data are available worldwide. Third, the continuous record of satellite data allows for a dynamic characterization of ecosystems and land-cover changes. Received 6 October 1999; accepted 2 April 2001.     

多尺度下宝鸡地区干旱动态格局演变及其与植被覆盖的关系

利用宝鸡地区11个气象站点1974—2013年逐月气温和降水量数据,基于标准化降水蒸散指数(SPEI),结合土地利用/覆盖数据,从干旱发生频率、发生强度及与植被NDVI相关性等角度,探讨了近40年来干旱时空变化格局及其对植被覆盖的响应。结果显示:宝鸡地区年均SPEI指数以-2.50%/a的速度下降,干旱趋势明显增强。自20世纪末以来,全区年均干旱指数呈明显的上升趋势,以2007—2010年增大趋势最为显著(超过0.05临界线);近40年来,春季干旱发生频率达60%及以上的有21 a,达90%以上的有9a。1981—1986年起伏变化最为剧烈。秋季平均干旱发生频率为46.29%,为春、夏、秋、冬4个季节中最低。从干旱发生强度来看,全区年际、四季及月6个时间尺度上干旱强度高、低值区域分布均比较集中;秋季强度最弱的区域面积表现最高,占总面积的75.47%。干旱发生最严重的是春季,占总面积的11.90%。全区干旱与植被覆盖相关性均表现较好(均通过0.05显著性水平检验),林地、草地负相关性最为显著(除夏季),夏季、秋季、月尺度上,耕地、水域、城乡地区干旱与植被覆盖的相关性与土地利用类型无关。     

Woody encroachment and forest degradation in sub-Saharan Africa's woodlands and savannas 1982–2006

We review the literature and find 16 studies from across Africa''s savannas and woodlands where woody encroachment dominates. These small-scale studies are supplemented by an analysis of long-term continent-wide satellite data, specifically the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series from the Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (GIMMS) dataset. Using dry-season data to separate the tree and grass signals, we find 4.0% of non-rainforest woody vegetation in sub-Saharan Africa (excluding West Africa) significantly increased in NDVI from 1982 to 2006, whereas 3.52% decreased. The increases in NDVI were found predominantly to the north of the Congo Basin, with decreases concentrated in the Miombo woodland belt. We hypothesize that areas of increasing dry-season NDVI are undergoing woody encroachment, but the coarse resolution of the study and uncertain relationship between NDVI and woody cover mean that the results should be interpreted with caution; certainly, these results do not contradict studies finding widespread deforestation throughout the continent. However, woody encroachment could be widespread, and warrants further investigation as it has important consequences for the global carbon cycle and land–climate interactions.     

41年罗山自然保护区人地关系的演进与孤立生境的形成

罗山自然保护区孑遗生境具有过渡性、稀有性和脆弱性,其生态走向关乎濒危物种的延续与北方干旱荒漠带宁夏段的生态平衡。利用Landsat MSS/TM/ETM+/OLI(1977—2017年)数据、SRTM DEM和罗山周边气象站点(1977—2017年)年均气温和降水数据,对流域内典型人文要素(人口、耕地、居民建设用地面积)和自然生态要素(NDVI)进行了定量化表达及相关性分析。研究发现:流域视角下罗山保护区一些人文、生态、景观地理学指标发生了变化,41年来(1977—2017年)真形(依比例)居民建设用地面积增加了3.09倍;生态移民使局部地区人口增长了34.30倍;土地利用方式发生了根本变化,旱作耕地大部分退耕还林,小部分转移为水浇地;近5a(2013—2017年)罗山自然保护区NDVI最大值、NDVI总和虽有轻微上升趋势,但仍低于历史较好时期。结果表明:(1)公路、铁路、围栏的建设将狭小的生态保护区分割包围,使景观格局严重破碎化,使动植物栖息环境高度隔离化。(2)红寺堡移民区快速城市化和高强度的农业开发,使流域人-地关系愈加紧张,加重了区域生态风险。     

祁连山国家公园植被时空变化及其对人类活动的响应

祁连山国家公园地处青藏、蒙新、黄土三大高原交汇地带的祁连山北麓,作为国家公园体制试点之一,是我国重要的生态功能区、水源涵养地和生物多样性保护优先区域,其生态功能不可忽视。以祁连山国家公园2000—2019年归一化植被指数(NDVI)和净初级生产力(NPP)数据为基础,结合气温、降水、土地利用、矿产开采和旅游发展数据,利用泰尔-森趋势分析(Theil-Sen趋势分析)、曼-肯德尔检验(Mann-Kendall显著性检验)、土地转移概率矩阵和多元残差分析方法,分析该区域的植被时空分布特征、变化趋势特征及其对气候变化和人类活动的响应。结果表明：(1)2000—2019年祁连山国家公园内NDVI和NPP在空间上呈现出东南高西北低,由东南向西北递减的格局。时间上呈现上升趋势,上升速率分别为0.0053/a和0.0014/a;(2)祁连山国家公园内NPP提高、降低和稳定区域分别占总面积的87.29%、0.40%和12.30%。降低区域零星分布于整个国家公园,其中在走廊南山和冷龙岭交汇处,靠近甘青两省交界边缘分布最为集中。提高区域分布广泛,尤其以国家公园东部最为明显;(3)祁连山国家公园NDVI与气...     

How to measure ecosystem stability? An evaluation of the reliability of stability metrics based on remote sensing time series across the major global ecosystems

Increasing frequency of extreme climate events is likely to impose increased stress on ecosystems and to jeopardize the services that ecosystems provide. Therefore, it is of major importance to assess the effects of extreme climate events on the temporal stability (i.e., the resistance, the resilience, and the variance) of ecosystem properties. Most time series of ecosystem properties are, however, affected by varying data characteristics, uncertainties, and noise, which complicate the comparison of ecosystem stability metrics (ESMs) between locations. Therefore, there is a strong need for a more comprehensive understanding regarding the reliability of stability metrics and how they can be used to compare ecosystem stability globally. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of temporal ESMs based on time series of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index of 15 global land‐cover types. We provide a framework (i) to assess the reliability of ESMs in function of data characteristics, uncertainties and noise and (ii) to integrate reliability estimates in future global ecosystem stability studies against climate disturbances. The performance of our framework was tested through (i) a global ecosystem comparison and (ii) an comparison of ecosystem stability in response to the 2003 drought. The results show the influence of data quality on the accuracy of ecosystem stability. White noise, biased noise, and trends have a stronger effect on the accuracy of stability metrics than the length of the time series, temporal resolution, or amount of missing values. Moreover, we demonstrate the importance of integrating reliability estimates to interpret stability metrics within confidence limits. Based on these confidence limits, other studies dealing with specific ecosystem types or locations can be put into context, and a more reliable assessment of ecosystem stability against environmental disturbances can be obtained.     

基于夜间灯光数据的甘青宁城市扩展及其建成区植被变化特征

开展针对黄河上游甘青宁地区城市建成区空间发展模式及其植被变化特征的研究,可为构建科学合理的城市发展体系、维护区域生态安全屏障提供重要的参考依据。以DMSP/OLS和统计数据为基础,运用统计数据比较法提取了甘青宁地区21座地级市(州)的城市建成区边界,并从城市空间扩展特征、扩展速度、动态度、紧凑度和重心迁移5个方面对城市扩展特征进行分析;在此基础上,引入SPOT/VEGETATION NDVI数据,以年均NDVI作为表征城市建成区植被状况的指标,从NDVI总和、均值、比值及其变化量、年际变化率及其变化百分率和稳定性5个方面对研究区2002—2013年城市建成区的植被变化进行研究。结果表明：1)采用统计数据比较法提取获得的研究区城市建成区精度较高,误差率在6.7%以内;2)城市用地围绕河西走廊及黄河上游地区形成不连续的“几”字型空间形态,并具有点状、线状和面状3种不同的分布模式;3)城市扩展年均速及动态度大体呈上升趋势,且2010—2013年的城市扩展速度(4.53 km~2/a)是2006—2010年的2倍;4)除酒泉、海西、白银、天水、石嘴山和兰州外,其他城市建成区紧凑度指数均较高;5...