Stomatal control of gas exchange in barley awns

The gas exchange of barley ears and awns was measured in the field using a gas analysis system and a diffusion porometer. Awn stomatal resistance decreased with increasing irradiance but to a smaller extent than leaf stomatal resistance. Measurements on ears immediately before and after successively removing awns showed that awn transpiration and photosynthesis were proportional to awn area and that awns accounted for 73% of transpiration by the ear. Although the maximum rates of photosynthesis of which awns were capable declined with age, awns accounted for 80–115% of the net CO₂ uptake of complete ears because the ears-less-awns could respire more CO₂ than they absorbed. Ear photosynthesis accounted for 52% of the weekly increment in ear dry weight after ear emergence, but 5 weeks later photosynthesis by the ear balanced respiration. Overall photosynthesis by the ear accounted for 35 % of its final weight. Differences in the light response curves of leaves and ears can be fully accounted for by the different relationships between stomatal resistance and irradiance of the two organs.     

A new viewpoint to understand the response of leaf dark respiration to elevated CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> concentration

By investigating the R _D-C _a (dark respiration rate-atmospheric CO₂ concentration) and P _N (net photosynthetic rate)-C _a curves of bamboo (Fargesia denudata) and poplar (Populus cathayanna), we found that: (1) the minimal R _D was close to ambient CO₂ concentration, and the elevated or decreased atmospheric CO₂ concentration enhanced the R _D of both species; (2) the response curves of R _D-C _a were simulated well by quadratic function. This phenomenon might be an inherent property of leaf R _D of F. denudata and P. cathayanna. If this was true, it implies that effect of CO₂ on R _D could be interpreted with the relationship of R _D-C _a curves and the quadratic function.     

Gasstoffwechselphysiologische Schädigungskriterien bei submersen Makrophyten vom Typ Fontinalis antipyretica L. unter Einwirkung von Schwermetallen oder Phenol

The water moss Fontinalis antipyretica L. is well suited for measuring CO₂ exchange by infrared gas analysis (IRGA), as only CO₂ is used for assimilation. Both in a state of full activity and of reduced activity in the course of a toxical charge the ratio of net primary productivity to respiration related to intermittent illumination is used as a bioassay. Three types regarding the proportion of net assimilation (A_N) to respiration (R_D) are refered to the toxical charge (phenol, HgCl₂, CuSO₄, CdCl₂). In the case of displacing the balance of A_N/R_D in the diurnal cycle to the side of respiration, photosynthetic oxygenation in the water ecosystem decreases. The combination of measuring CO₂ exchange by IRGA with a cyto-physiological investigation by determining the time of deplasmolysis of leaves is used for the prediction of vitality long before damage including lethal effects are to be recognizend morphologically.     

Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript> reduces the effect of hypoxia in mosses <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mnium undulatum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polytrichum commune</Emphasis>

Gametophores of mosses Mnium undulatum and Polytrichum commune were submerged in distilled water or in calcium chloride solution (0.9 mM Ca²⁺) to induce hypoxia. The net photosynthetic (P_N) and dark respiration rate (R_D) were measured in the air containing 300–400 μmol(CO₂)·mol⁻¹(air) and 0.21 mol(O₂)·mol⁻¹(air). P_N of M. undulatum gametophores decreased to 58 % of the control after 1-h submersion in water, whereas to 80 % of the control in P. commune gametophores. A smaller decrease in P_N was observed when the gametophores were immersed in CaCl₂ solution. In hypoxia, R_D in the tested mosses species was a little higher than in the control.     

Effects of root diameter and root nitrogen concentration on in situ root respiration among different seasons and tree species

Knowledge of root respiration is a prerequisite for a better understanding of ecosystem carbon budget and carbon allocation. However, there are not many relevant data in the literature on direct measurements of in situ root respiration by root chamber method. Furthermore, few studies have been focused on the effects of root diameter (D _r) and root nitrogen concentration (N _r) on in situ root respiration among different seasons and tree species. To address these goals, we used a simplified root-chamber system to measure in situ root respiration rates of Acacia crassicarpa and Eucalyptus urophylla in subtropical plantations of south China. We found that the species and season variation in root respiration were affected by D _r and N _r. Also, the root respiration per unit dry mass (R _r, nmol CO₂ g⁻¹ s⁻¹) and root respiration per unit N (R _n, nmol CO₂ g N⁻¹ s⁻¹) were affected by D _r and N _r. The R _r, R _n, N _r and soil temperature sensitivity (Q ₁₀) of R _r for the two species significantly decreased with an increase of D _r. The R _r of the two species showed significant an inter-seasonal and diurnal pattern, and this trend decreased with increasing D _r. Both the R _r and Q ₁₀ of the two species increased with increasing N _r. The D _r and N _r explained 54 and 52% of the observed variation in R _r for A. crassicarpa, and 65 and 70% for E. urophylla. The R _r, N _r, and Q ₁₀ of A. crassicarpa were significantly higher than those of E. urophylla. Our results indicated that root respiration was dependent on D _r and N _r, and this dependence varied with season and plant species.     

Seasonal changes in the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration in a cool-temperate deciduous forest

A trenching method was used to determine the contribution of root respiration to soil respiration. Soil respiration rates in a trenched plot (R _trench) and in a control plot (R _control) were measured from May 2000 to September 2001 by using an open-flow gas exchange system with an infrared gas analyser. The decomposition rate of dead roots (R _D) was estimated by using a root-bag method to correct the soil respiration measured from the trenched plots for the additional decaying root biomass. The soil respiration rates in the control plot increased from May (240–320 mg CO₂ m^–2 h^–1) to August (840–1150 mg CO₂ m^–2 h^–1) and then decreased during autumn (200–650 mg CO₂ m^–2 h^–1). The soil respiration rates in the trenched plot showed a similar pattern of seasonal change, but the rates were lower than in the control plot except during the 2 months following the trenching. Root respiration rate (R _r) and heterotrophic respiration rate (R _h) were estimated from R _control, R _trench, and R _D. We estimated that the contribution of R _r to total soil respiration in the growing season ranged from 27 to 71%. There was a significant relationship between R _h and soil temperature, whereas R _r had no significant correlation with soil temperature. The results suggest that the factors controlling the seasonal change of respiration differ between the two components of soil respiration, R _r and R _h.     

Gas Exchange of In Vitro and Ex Vitro Grown Grapevine Plants

Net photosynthetic rate (P _N) and dark respiration rate (R _D) were measured in Vitis vinifera L. cvs. Dimiat 4/24 (23^rd subculture), Dimiat 4/38 (22^nd subculture), and Italian Riesling 3/47 (22^nd subculture) on days 3, 2, and 1 (1^st series) before transfer from the in vitro culture and on days 14, 15, 16 (2^nd series) and 28, 29, 30 (3^rd series) after the transfer. P _N of in vitro and ex vitro plants was strongly affected by irradiance. P _N and R _D of in vitro plantlets were lower and transpiration rate (E) was higher compared to those of ex vitro plantlets. P _N, R _D, and E changed in the course of acclimation.     

Study of CO2 exchange processes,resistances to carbon dioxide and chlorophyll content during leaf ontogenesis in poplar

Net photosynthetic (P _N) and dark respiration (R _D) rate, stomatal (rs′) and internal (ri′) resistances to carbon dioxide were measured by gas exchange methods on leaves of different ages, expressed in leaf plastochron index units (LPI) for a fast growing poplar cultivar Unal 2. Although the optimal leaf age differs slightly for the different gas exchange parameters, leaf ontogeny is reflected in the same way in these different parameters. MaximalP _N and minimalrs′ and ri′ values were found at LPI between 6 and 10. Chlorophyll concentrations were lowest at LPI lower than 10 although an increase in two steps was found, when leaf age increases up to maturity.     

Photosynthesis and conductance of spring wheat ears: field response to free-air CO2 enrichment and limitations in water and nitrogen supply

The mid-day responses of wheat ear CO₂ and water vapour exchange to full-season CO₂ enrichment were investigated using a Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (FACE) apparatus. Spring wheat [Triticum aestivum (L). cv. Yecora Rojo] was grown in two experiments under ambient and elevated atmospheric CO₂ (C_a) concentrations (approximately 370 μ mol mol ^{− 1} and 550 μ mol mol ^{− 1}, respectively) combined first with two irrigation (Irr) schemes (Wet: 100% and Dry: 50% replacement of evapotranspiration) and then with two levels of nitrogen (N) fertilization (High: 350, Low: 70 kg ha ^{− 1} N). Blowers were used for C_a enrichment. Ambient C_a plots were exposed to blower induced winds as well the C_a × N but not in the C_a × Irr experiment. The net photosynthesis for the ears was increased by 58% and stomatal conductance (g_s) was decreased by 26% due to elevated C_a under ample water and N supply when blowers were applied to both C_a treatments. The use of blowers in the C_a-enriched plots only during the C_a × Irr experiment (blower effect) and Low N supply restricted the enhancement of net photosynthesis of the ear due to higher C_a. In the latter case, the increase of net photosynthesis of the ear amounted to 26%. The decrease in g_s caused by higher C_a was not affected by the blower effect and N treatment. The mid-day enhancement of net photosynthesis due to elevated C_a was higher for ears than for flag leaves and this effect was most pronounced under ample water and N supply. The contribution of ears to grain filling is therefore likely to increase in higher C_a environments in the future. In the comparison between Wet and Dry, the higher C_a did not alter the response of net photosynthesis of the ear and g_s to Irr. However, C_a enrichment increased the drought tolerance of net photosynthesis of the glume and delayed the increase of the awn portion of net photosynthesis of the ear during drought. Therefore, the role of awns for maintaining high net photosynthesis of the ear under drought may decrease when C_a increases.     

Ear photosynthesis, carbon isotope discrimination and the contribution of respiratory CO2 to differences in grain mass in durum wheat

The role of ear photosynthesis in grain filling was studied in a number of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum var durum L.) landraces and varieties from the Middle East, North Africa, and from the collections of ‘Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique’ (INRA, France) and ‘Centro International de Mejora de Maiz y Trigo’ (CIMMYT, Mexico). Plants were grown in the field in a Mediterranean climate. Flag leaves (blade plus sheath) and ears were kept in the dark from 1 week after anthesis to maturity which reduced grain weight by 22.4% and 59.0%, respectively. In a further experiment, the carbon isotope discrimination ratio (Δ) of ear bracts, awns and flag leaves was measured on samples taken at anthesis and on mature kernels. The mean value of Δ for the water soluble fraction of bracts (17.0‰) and awns (17.7‰) were lower than those of leaves (19.5‰) and fairly similar to those of kernels (17.4‰) averaged across all genotypes. Data indicate that most of the photosynthates in the grain come from ear parts and not from flag leaves. In addition, a higher water use efficiency (WUE) of ear parts than of the flag leaf is suggested by their lower Δ values. Gas exchange in ears and flag leaves was measured during grain filling. Averaged over all genotypes, CO₂ diffusive conductance was about five times higher in the flag leaf than in the spike (with distal portions of awns outside the photosynthetic chamber) 2 weeks after anthesis. In absolute terms, the dark respiration rate (R_d) was greater than the net photosynthesis rate (P_n) by a factor of 1.74 in the spike, whereas R_d was much smaller, only 22.1, 65.7 and 24.8% of P_n in blade, sheath and awns, respectively. Data indicate that photosynthesis, and hence the water use efficiency (photosynthesis/transpiration), is greatly underestimated in ears because of the high rates of respiration which diminish the measured rates of net CO₂ exchange. Results of ¹³C discrimination and gas exchange show that genotypes from North Africa have higher WUE than those from the Middle East. The high R_d values of ears as well as their low diffusive conductance suggest that CO₂ from respiration may be used as source of carbon for ear photosynthesis. In the same way, the anatomy of glumes, for example, supports the role of bracts using internal CO₂ as source of photosynthesis. In the first experiment, the Δ in mature grains from culms with darkened ears compared with control culms provided further evidence in support of this hypothesis. Thus, the Δ from kernels of control plants was 0.40 higher than that from ear-darkened plants, probably because of some degree of refixation (recycling) of respired CO₂ in the grains.     

Effect of NaCl,water stress or both on gas exchange and growth of wheat

Responses of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to various concentrations of NaCl and levels of drought were followed. With the rise of NaCl or drought, or NaCl and drought together, growth was retarded. The water content of shoots and roots was mostly unchanged. The chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were increased in plants subjected to salinity or drought or both. Only high salinity level induced a considerable decrease in net photosynthetic rate (P_N) and dark respiration rate (R_D). P_N and R_D were decreased with the decrease of soil moisture content. The content of Na⁺ in the shoots and roots of wheat plants increased with increasing salinity or decreasing soil moisture content or both treatments. Considerable variations in the content of K⁺, Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ were induced by the NaCl, drought or both treatments.     

Acclimation of photosynthesis,respiration and ecosystem carbon flux of a wetland on Chesapeake Bay,Maryland to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration

Acclimation of photosynthesis and respiration in shoots and ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes to rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (C _a ) was studied in a brackish wetland. Open top chambers were used to create test atmospheres of normal ambient and elevated C _a (=normal ambient + 34 Pa CO₂) over mono-specific stands of the C₃ sedge Scirpus olneyi, the dominant C₃ species in the wetland ecosystem, throughout each growing season since April of 1987. Acclimation of photosynthesis and respiration were evaluated by measurements of gas exchange in excised shoots. The impact of elevated C _a on the accumulation of carbon in the ecosystem was determined by ecosystem gas exchange measurements made using the open top chamber as a cuvette.Elevated C _a increased carbohydrate and reduced Rubisco and soluble protein concentrations as well as photosynthetic capacity(A) and dark respiration (R _d ; dry weight basis) in excised shoots and canopies (leaf area area basis) of Scirpus olneyi. Nevertheless, the rate of photosynthesis was stimulated 53% in shoots and 30% in canopies growing in elevated C _a compared to normal ambient concentration. Elevated C _a inhibited R _d measured in excised shoots (–19 to –40%) and in seasonally integrated ecosystem respiration (R _e ; –36 to –57%). Growth of shoots in elevated C _a was stimulated 14–21%, but this effect was not statistically significant at peak standing biomass in midseason. Although the effect of elevated C _a on growth of shoots was relatively small, the combined effect of increased number of shoots and stimulation of photosynthesis produced a 30% stimulation in seasonally integrated gross primary production (GPP). The stimulation of photosynthesis and inhibition of respiration by elevated C _a increased net ecosystem production (NEP=GPP–R _e ) 59% in 1993 and 50% in 1994. While this study consistently showed that elevated C _a produced a significant increase in NEP, we have not identified a correspondingly large pool of carbon below ground.     

Contrasting effects of low and high nitrogen additions on soil CO2 flux components and ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarp production in a boreal forest

Nitrogen (N) added through atmospheric deposition or as fertilizer to boreal and temperate forests reduces both soil decomposer activity (heterotrophic respiration) and the activity of roots and mycorrhizal fungi (autotrophic respiration). However, these negative effects have been found in studies that applied relatively high levels of N, whereas the responses to ambient atmospheric N deposition rates are still not clear. Here, we compared an unfertilized control boreal forest with a fertilized forest (100 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1) and a forest subject to N‐deposition rates comparable to those in Central Europe (20 kg N ha^?1 yr^?1) to investigate the effects of N addition rate on different components of forest floor respiration and the production of ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps. Soil collars were used to partition heterotrophic (R_h) and autotrophic (R_a) respiration, which was further separated into respiration by tree roots (R_tr) and mycorrhizal hyphae (R_m). Total forest floor respiration was twice as high in the low N plot compared to the control, whereas there were no differences between the control and high N plot. There were no differences in R_h respiration among plots. The enhanced forest floor respiration in the low N plot was, therefore, the result of increased R_a respiration, with an increase in R_tr respiration, and a doubling of R_m respiration. The latter was corroborated by a slightly greater ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal sporocarp production in the low N plot as compared to the control plot. In contrast, EM fungal sporocarp production was nearly eliminated, and R_m respiration severely reduced, in the high N plot, which resulted in significantly lower R_a respiration. We thus found a nonlinear response of the R_a components to N addition rate, which calls for further studies of the quantitative relations among N addition rate, plant photosynthesis and carbon allocation, and the function of EM fungi.     

Growth,N2 fixation and photosynthesis in a cyanobacterium,Trichodesmium sp., under Fe stress

Trichodesmium sp., isolated from the Great Barrier Reef lagoon, was cultured in artificial seawater media containing a range of Fe concentration. Fe additions stimulated growth, N₂ fixation, cellular chlorophyll a content, light-saturated chlorophyll a-specific gross photosynthetic capacity (P_m ^chla) and the dark respiration rate (R_d ^chla). Cell yields only doubled for 9 nM Fe relative to zero added Fe, whereas N₂ fixation increased 11-fold considerably for 450 nM Fe. The results suggest that N₂ fixation of Trichodesmium is more sensitive to Fe limitation than are the cell yields.     

Environmental induced variations in leaf dark respiration and net photosynthesis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus ilex</Emphasis> L.

The relationships between dark respiration rate (R _D) and net photosynthetic rate (P _N) in Quercus ilex L. shrubs growing at the Botanical Garden in Rome were analysed. Correlation analysis of the data sets collected in the year 2006 confirmed the dependence among the considered leaf traits, in particular, R _D was significantly (p<0.05) correlated with P _N (r = 0.40). R _D and P _N increased from March to May [1.40±0.10 and 10.1±1.8 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹ mean values of the period, respectively], when air temperature was in the range 14.8–25.2 °C, underlining the highest metabolic activity in the period of the maximum vegetative activity that favoured biomass accumulation. On the contrary, the highest R _D [1.60±0.02 μmol(CO₂) m⁻² s⁻¹], associated to the lowest P _N rates (44 % of the maximum) and carbon use efficiency (CUE) in July underlined the mobilization of stored material during drought stress by a higher air temperature (32.7 °C).     

Photosynthesis and dark respiration of leaves of terrestrial carnivorous plants

Using CO₂ gasometry, net photosynthetic (P _N) and dark respiration rates (R _D) were measured in leaves or traps of 12 terrestrial carnivorous plant species usually grown in the shade. Generally, mean maximum P _N (60 nmol CO₂ g⁻¹(DM) s⁻¹ or 2.7 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) was low in comparison with that of vascular non-carnivorous plants but was slightly higher than that reported elsewhere for carnivorous plants. After light saturation, the facultatively heliophytic plants behaved as shade-adapted plants. Mean R _D in leaves and traps of all species reached about 50% of maximum P _N and represents the high photosynthetic (metabolic) cost of carnivory.     

Lack of C4 photosynthetic metabolism in ears of C3 cereals

There is continuing controversy over whether a degree of C₄ photosynthetic metabolism exists in ears of C₃ cereals. In this context, CO₂ exchange and the initial products of photosynthesis were examined in flag leaf blades and various ear parts of two durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) and two six-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars. Three weeks after anthesis, the CO₂ compensation concentration at 210 mmol mol^?1 O₂ in durum wheat and barley ear parts was similar to or greater than that in flag leaves. The O₂ dependence of the CO₂ compensation concentration in durum wheat ear parts, as well as in the flag leaf blade, was linear, as expected for C₃ photosynthesis. In a complementary experiment, intact and attached ears and flag leaf blades of barley and durum wheat were radio-labelled with ¹⁴CO₂ during a 10s pulse, and the initial products of fixation were studied in various parts of the ears (awns, glumes, inner bracts and grains) and in the flag leaf blade. All tissues assimilated CO₂ mainly by the Calvin (C₃) cycle, with little fixation of ¹⁴CO₂ into the C₄ acids malate and aspartate (about 10% or less). These collective data support the conclusion that in the ear parts of these C₃ cereals C₄ photosynthetic metabolism is nil.     

Effect of fruiting and drought or flooding on carbon balance of apple trees

The response of fruiting or deblossomed trees to water stress such as drought or flooding was investigated in six semi open-top cuvettes each containing one apple (Malus domestica Borkh. cv. Golden Delicious) tree. Xylem water potentials of leaves dropped from -1.2 to -4.1 MPa within 7 d of drought, the effect being enhanced by fruiting. Apple trees without fruits showed smaller reductions in net photosynthetic rate (P _N ) and dark respiration rate (R _D ) after 2 d of drought and hence more positive carbon balances relative to fruiting trees. Flooding for 4 d had a more pronounced effect on P _N than on transpiration, resulting in a reduced water use efficiency (WUE). This reduction in WUE was greater in the non-fruiting trees. Flooding reduced P _N of the whole apple canopies irrespective of fruiting; aple trees without fruits increased R _D resulting in a less positive carbon balance relative to fruiting trees. Fruiting increased the sensitivity to drought of apple trees (R _D and P _N ), but decreased their sensitivity to flooding (R _D and WUE), suggesting different adaptation mechanisms for the two forms of water stress. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Photosynthetic parameters in seedlings of Eucalyptus grandis as affected by rate of nitrogen supply

Seedlings of Eucalyptus grandis were grown at five different rates of nitrogen supply. Once steady‐state growth rates were established, a detailed set of CO₂ and water vapour exchange measurements were made to investigate the effects of leaf nitrogen content (N), as determined by nitrogen supply rate, on leaf structural, photosynthetic, respiratory and stomatal properties. Gas exchange data were used to parametrize the Farquhar–von Caemmerer photosynthesis model. Leaf mass per area (LMA) was negatively correlated to N. A positive correlation was observed between both day (R_d) and night respiration (R_n) and N when they were expressed on a leaf mass basis, but no correlation was found on a leaf area basis. An R_d/R_n ratio of 0·59 indicated a significant inhibition of dark respiration by light. The maximum net CO₂ assimilation rate at ambient CO₂ concentration (A_max), the maximum rate of potential electron transport (J_max) and the maximum rate of carboxylation (V_cmax) significantly increased with N, particularly when expressed on a mass basis. Although the maximum stomatal conductance to CO₂ (g_scmax) was positively correlated with A_max, there was no relationship between g_scmax and N. Leaf N content influenced the allocation of nitrogen to photosynthetic processes, resulting in a decrease of the J_max/V_cmax ratio with increasing N. It was concluded that leaf nitrogen concentration is a major determinant of photosynthetic capacity in Eucalyptus grandis seedlings and, to a lesser extent, of leaf respiration and nitrogen partitioning among photosynthetic processes, but not of stomatal conductance.     

An empirical model for estimating CO2 exchange of Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag. in the shortgrass prairie

Summary An empirical model for predicting net photosynthesis (P _N ) and dark respiration (R _D ) in the field was developed and tested for Bouteloua gracilis (H.B.K.) Lag., the dominant C₄ grass of the North American shortgrass prairie. P _N is predicted as a function of soil water potential, canopy air temperature, irradiance, and plant age, while R _D is expressed as a function of soil water potential and temperature. The model accounted for 85% of the variability in the data base used to estimate parameter values. Results of a validation test showed good agreement between observed and predicted P _N rates, suggesting this approach would be useful as a submodel of a grassland ecosystem model.