The effects of intensity of exercise on excess postexercise oxygen consumption and energy expenditure in moderately trained men and women

This experiment investigated the effects of intensity of exercise on excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) in eight trained men and eight women. Three exercise intensities were employed 40%, 50%, and 70% of the predetermined maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max). All ventilation measured was undertaken with a standard, calibrated, open circuit spirometry system. No differences in the 40%, 50% and 70% VO_2max trials were observed among resting levels of oxygen consumption (V0₂) for either the men or the women. The men had significantly higher resting VO₂ values being 0.31 (SEM 0.01) 1·min^–1 than did the women, 0.26 (SEM 0.01) 1·min^–1 (P < 0.05). The results indicated that there were highly significant EPOC for both the men and the women during the 3-h postexercise period when compared with resting levels and that these were dependent upon the exercise intensity employed. The duration of EPOC differed between the men and the women but increased with exercise intensity: for the men 40% – 31.2 min; 50% – 42.1 min; and 70% – 47.6 min and for the women, 40% – 26.9 min; 50% – 35.6 min; and 70% – 39.1 min. The highest EPOC, in terms of both time and energy utilised was at 70% VO_2max. The regression equation for the men, where y=O₂ in litres, and x=exercise intensity as a percentage of maximum was y=0.380x + 1.9 (r ²=0.968) and for the women is y=0.374x–0.857 (r ²=0.825). These findings would indicate that the men and the women had to exercise at the same percentage of their VO_2max to achieve the maximal benefits in terms of energy expenditure and hence body mass loss. However, it was shown that a significant EPOC can be achieved at moderate to low exercise intensities but without the same body mass loss and energy expenditure.     

Optimizing the population density inIsochrysis galbana grown outdoors in a glass column photobioreactor

Particularly high population densities are readily sustainable in newly designed glass column reactors. The optimal density ofIsochrysis galbana in these columns in summer was 4.6 g L^–1 dry algal mass at which value the highest sustainable productivity obtained was a record of 1.6 g L^–1 d^–1. The population density exerted a direct effect on productivity: The higher the light intensity, the more pronounced was the dependence of the output rate on the population density, variations of 10%± from the optimal density resulting in a significant decline in productivity. The population density had also a very significant effect on the course of photoadaptation which took place during the first days after transferring the cultures from the laboratory to the outdoors. The output rate was lower by 5 to 35% on the first day of such transfer as compared to the light-adapted control. The higher the cell density, the faster was the process of photoadaptation as indicated by the rise of the productivity and O₂ tension to the control level. The potential for excess light damages was most prominent in the column reactors used, in which the light path was much reduced compared with that in open raceways. Significant photoinhibition took place at below optimal population density (2.8–3.8 g L^–1), and when cell density was further reduced (1.9 to 1.1 g L^–1), exposure to full sunlight caused photooxidative death within a few hours. The pattern of O₂ concentration in the culture that emerged along the day served as a useful indicator of photolimitation.Author for correspondence     

Zonation and seasonality of benthic primary production and community respiration in tropical mangrove forests

Benthic oxygen consumption and primary production were measured using the bell jar technique in deltaic and fringing mangrove forests of tropical northeastern Australia. In a deltaic forest, rates of sediment respiration ranged from 197 to 1645 mol O₂ m^–2 h^–1 (mean=836), but did not vary significantly with season or intertidal zone. Gross primary production varied among intertidal zones and seasons, ranging from –281 to 1413 mol O₂ m^–2 h^–1 (mean=258). Upon tidal exposure, rates of gross primary production increased, but respiration rates did not change significantly. In a fringing mangrove forest, benthic respiration and gross primary production exhibited strong seasonality. In both forests, rates of oxygen consumption and production were low compared to salt marshes, but equivalent to rates in other mangrove forests. The production:respiration (P/R) ratio varied greatly over space and time (range:–0.61 to 1.76), but most values were «1 with a mean of 0.15, indicating net heterotrophy. On a bare creek bank and a sandflat, rates of gross primary production and P/R ratios were generally higher than in the adjacent mangroves. Low microalgal standing stocks, low light intensity under the canopy, and differences in gross primary production between mangroves and tidal flats, and with tidal status, indicate that benthic microalgae are light-limited and a minor contributor to primary productivity in these tropical mangrove forests.     

Evoked potentials of the auditory cortex of the porpoise,Phocoena phocoena

Summary Evoked potential (EP) recordings in the auditory cortex of the porpoise,Phocoena phocoena, were used to obtain data characterizing the auditory perception of this dolphin. The frequency threshold curves showed that the lowest EP thresholds were within 120–130 kHz. An additional sensitivity peak was observed between 20 and 30 kHz. The minimal EP threshold to noise burst was 3·10^–4–10^/s-3 Pa. The threshold for response to modulations in sound intensity was below 0.5 dB and about 0.1% for frequency modulations. Special attention was paid to the dependence of the auditory cortex EP on the temporal parameters of the acoustic stimuli: sound burst duration, rise time, and repetition rate. The data indicate that the porpoise auditory cortex is adapted to detect ultrasonic, brief, fast rising, and closely spaced sounds like echolocating clicks.Abbreviation EP evoked potential     

Energy cost and energy sources in karate

Energy costs and energy sources in karate (wado style) were studied in eight male practitioners (age 23.8 years, mass. 72.3 kg, maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max) 36.8 ml · min^–1 · kg^–1) performing six katas (formal, organized movement sequences) of increasing duration (from approximately. 10 s to approximately 80 s). Oxygen consumption (VO₂) was determined during pre-exercise rest, the exercise period and the first 270 s of recovery in five consecutive expired gas collections. A blood sample for lactate (la^–) analysis was taken 5 min after the end of exercise. The overall amount of O₂ consumed during the exercise and in the following recovery increased linearly with the duration of exercise (t) from approximately 1.51 (for t equal to 10.5 s (SD 1.6)) to approximately 5.81, for t equal to 81.5 s (SD 1.0). The energy release from la^– production (VO_21a ^–) calculated assuming that an increase of 1 mmol · l^–1 la^– corresponded to a VO₂ of 3 mlO₂ · kg^–1 was negligible for t equal to or less than 20 s and increased to 17.3 ml · kg^–1 (la^– = 5.8 mmol · l^–1 above resting values) for t equal approximately to 80 s. The overall energy requirement (VO_2eq) as given by the sum of VO₂ and VO_2la ^– was described by VO_2eq = 0.87 + 0.071 · t (n = 64; r ² = 0.91), where VO_2eq is in litres and t in seconds. This equation shows that the metabolic power (VO_2eq · t ^–1) for this karate style is very high: from approximately 9.51 · min^–1 for t equal to 10 s to approximately 4.91 · min^–1 for t equal to 80 s, i.e. from 3.5 to 1.8 times the subjects' VO_2max. The fraction of VO_2eq derived from the amount of O₂ consumed during the exercise increased from 11% for t equal to 10 s to 41 % for t equal to 80 s whereas VO_21a ^– was negligible far t equal to or less than 20 s and increased to 13 % o for t equal to 80 s. The remaining fraction (from 90% for t equal to 10 s to 46% for t equal to 80 s), corresponding to the amount of O₂ consumed in the recovery after exercise, is derived from anaerobic alactic sources, i.e. from net splitting of high energy phosphates during the exercise.     

Heterotrophic bacterial activity in Roskilde Fjord sediment during an autumn sedimentation peak

Total oxygen uptake, bacterial oxygen uptake, total bacterial biomass and active bacterial biomass were determined at the sediment-water interface at two stations in the brackish Roskilde Fjord between September and December in 1986 before, during and after sedimentation of a phytoplankton bloom. Bacterial oxygen consumption was separated from total oxygen consumption by addition of cycloheximide. The fractional and the absolute bacterial oxygen uptake were greatest at the most eutrophic station, where total oxygen uptake was 870–1740 mg O₂ m^–2 d^–1 and the bacterial oxygen uptake was 232–870 mg O₂ m^–2 d^–1. At the less eutrophic station, total oxygen uptake was 725–1740 mg O₂ m^–2 d^–1. and bacterial oxygen uptake was 200–550 mg O₂ m^–2 d^–1.Active bacterial biomass was separated from total bacterial biomass by addition of the terminal electron acceptor INT-formazan. The active bacterial biomass was 70–120 µg C mg^–1 ww of sediment at the most eutrophic station and 50–90 µg C g^–1 ww of sediment at the other station. Differences in capacity of bacterial oxygen uptake between the two stations correlated to the active bacterial biomass. The non-temperature dependent bacterial oxygen uptake correlated with the sedimentation rate.     

Simultaneous oxygen production and nitrogenase activity of an ammonia-excreting mutant of the cyanobacterium Anabaena variabilis in a co-culture with wheat

Summary A mutant strain of Anabaena variabilis, strain SA-1 that supported growth of wheat plants in a hydroponic co-culture in nitrogen (N) free medium also produced enough oxygen (O₂) to support root respiration. The steady-state concentration of net O₂ in the co-culture was dependent on incident light intensity. At an incident photosynthetic photoflux (PPF) of 1000 mol photons·m^–2·s^–1, net O₂ evolution by the co-culture in the root zone reached a maximum value of about 220 mol O₂ evolved·h^–1·mg chlorophyll (Chl)^–1. The O₂ concentration in the rhizosphere of the co-culture stayed above the ambient air level. O₂ uptake in the dark by strain SA-1-supplemented wheat roots washed free of cyanobacterium was higher than the root respiration of nitrate-grown plants. Nitrate-grown plants required aeration for maximum growth while the wheat-cyanobacterial co-culture can be cultured without aeration. These results show that O₂ produced by strain SA-1 can be used to supply the O₂ needs for root respiration of wheat. Respiration reduced net O₂ evolution by the mutant SA-1, decreasing the partial pressure of O₂ at the sites of cyanobacterial attachment to the roots. This led to an increase in the specific activity of nitrogenase of the co-culture at the high light intensities used to support wheat growth. This activity of about 30 mol ethylene produced·mg Chl^–1·h^–1 was three-fold higher than the activities obtained with the free-living strain SA-1 assayed at the same light intensity. In the co-culture, ammonia produced by the mutant strain SA-1 was not detectable. The NH _inf4 ^sup+ produced by strain SA-1 was used by the wheat plants and, under these conditions, the total N content of the plants reached as high as 85% of the total N content of nitrate-grown plants. In the co-culture system the metabolism of wheat and the cyanobacterium complemented each other, leading to higher plant growth in N-free medium. Offprint requests to: M. Gunasekaran     

The Effects of Different Training Backgrounds on VO2 Responses to All-Out and Supramaximal Constant-Velocity Running Bouts

To investigate the impact of different training backgrounds on pulmonary oxygen uptake (V̇O₂) responses during all-out and supramaximal constant-velocity running exercises, nine sprinters (SPRs) and eight endurance runners (ENDs) performed an incremental test for maximal aerobic velocity (MAV) assessment and two supramaximal running exercises (1-min all-out test and constant-velocity exercise). The V̇O₂ responses were continuously determined during the tests (K4^b2, Cosmed, Italy). A mono-exponential function was used to describe the V̇O₂ onset kinetics during constant-velocity test at 110%MAV, while during 1-min all-out test the peak of V̇O₂ (V̇O₂peak), the time to achieve the V̇O₂peak (tV̇O₂peak) and the V̇O₂ decrease at last of the test was determined to characterize the V̇O₂ response. During constant-velocity exercise, ENDs had a faster V̇O₂ kinetics than SPRs (12.7 ± 3.0 vs. 19.3 ± 5.6 s; p < 0.001). During the 1-min all-out test, ENDs presented slower tV̇O₂peak than SPRs (40.6 ± 6.8 and 28.8 ± 6.4 s, respectively; p = 0.002) and had a similar V̇O₂peak relative to the V̇O₂max (88 ± 8 and 83 ± 6%, respectively; p = 0.157). Finally, SPRs was the only group that presented a V̇O₂ decrease in the last half of the test (-1.8 ± 2.3 and 3.5 ± 2.3 ml.kg^-1.min^-1, respectively; p < 0.001). In summary, SPRs have a faster V̇O₂ response when maximum intensity is required and a high maximum intensity during all-out running exercise seems to lead to a higher decrease in V̇O₂ in the last part of the exercise.     

Electrophysiological investigation of medullary neurons connected with lateral line organs of the catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus)

Unit responses in the acoustic-lateral region of the medulla to electrical and mechanical stimulation of the lateral line organs were investigated in acute experiments on curarized catfish. Of the total number of neurons 70% possessed spontaneous activity. An electrical stimulus evoked a tonic response both in spontaneously active and in "silent" cells. Three main types of firing pattern of the neurons were distinguished: fast-adapting, slow-adapting, and grouped. As regards the relation of the neurons to polarity of the stimulus they were subdivided into two groups. The thresholds of unit responses to electrical stimulation varied considerably: from 2.5·10^–9 to 5·10^–12 A/mm². The effect of intensity of the electrical stimulation on unit responses in the medulla is analyzed. The precise dependence of on- and off-responses of each neuron on stimulus intensity of any polarity was determined. The neurons were shown to be sensitive to both electrical and mechanical stimuli. It is postulated that this phenomenon is due to convergence of impulses from electrical and mechanical receptors of the lateral line on the neurons. The properties of the central neurons are compared with those of the peripheral electroreceptor system in catfish.I. P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Leningrad. Translated from Neirofiziologiya, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 156–163, March–April, 1973.     

Cardiovascular and respiratory physiology of tuna: adaptations for support of exceptionally high metabolic rates

Synopsis Both physical and physiological modifications to the oxygen transport system promote high metabolic performance of tuna. The large surface area of the gills and thin blood-water barrier means that O₂ utilization is high (30–50%) even when ram ventilation approaches 101 min^–1kg^–1. The heart is extremely large and generates peak blood pressures in the range of 70–100 mmHg at frequencies of 1–5 Hz. The blood O₂ capacity approaches 16 ml dl^–1 and a large Bohr coefficient (–0.83 to –1.17) ensures adequate loading and unloading of O₂ from the well buffered blood (20.9 slykes). Tuna muscles have aerobic oxidation rates that are 3–5 times higher than in other teleosts and extremely high glycolytic capacity (150 mol g^–1 lactate generated) due to enhanced concentration of glycolytic enzymes. Gill resistance in tuna is high and may be more than 50% of total peripheral resistance so that dorsal aortic pressure is similar to that in other active fishes such as salmon or trout. An O₂ delivery/demand model predicts the maximum sustained swimming speed of small yellowfin and skipjack tuna is 5.6 BL s^–1 and 3.5 BL sec^–1, respectively. The surplus O₂ delivery capacity at lower swimming speeds allows tuna to repay large oxygen debts while swimming at 2–2.5 BL s^–1. Maximum oxygen consumption (7–9 × above the standard metabolic rate) at maximum exercise is provided by approximately 2 × increases in each of heart rate, stroke volume, and arterial-venous O₂ content difference.Paper from International Union of Biological Societies symposium The biology of tunas and billfishes: an examination of life on the knife edge, organized by Richard W. Brill and Kim N. Holland.     

Annual and diel oxygen regime in two polder ditches

The oxygen regime of two polder ditches and two enclosures within these ditches was studied. Continous oxygen temperature and light measurements were performed for 24-hour periods each month during two and a half year in the ditches and one year in the enclosures. Oxygen concentrations between 0 and 23 ppm were found, with diurnal ranges as large as 18 ppm. Steep gradients between bottom and surface could develop, but mostly disappeared during nightly turnover. The 10-percentile of the surface water measured between 9 and 17 hours was above 3 ppm, fullfilling the Dutch standards for this type of ecosystems. The oxygen concentrations near the bottom, however, could drop to zero and during the night surface concentrations below 1 ppm were measured. Based on average oxygen saturation values it is concluded that in the open water of the ditches oxygen consumption prevailed while in the enclosures oxygen production was most important. Based on the mass balance equation gross primary production and respiration were calculated. Annual average respiration varied between 2.5 and 6.6 g O₂.m^–2.d^–1 and average gross primary production between 3.2 and 4.8 g O₂.m^–2.d^–1. Maximum daily production and respiration were 15.9 and 22.3 g O₂.m^–2.d^–1. These figures classify the polder ditches as highly productive aquatic ecosystems.     

Transport and consumption rate of O2 in alginate gel beads entrapping hepatocytes

Experiments carried out with hepatocytes entrapped in alginate gel particles with a cell density of about 10⁷ cells ml^–1 showed an oxygen consumption rate of about 2.2×10^–16 mol cell^–1 s^–1. Under these conditions, no inner anoxic core is present in 1.8 mm diameter beads. From these data, the maximum bead size consistent with non-critical O₂ concentration at the bead center has been evaluated for different cell densities and O₂ concentrations in the medium.     

Amelioration of chilling stress by triadimefon in cucumber seedlings

Cucumber (Cucumis satvus L.) seeds were imbibed in distilled water (control) and 10 mg l^–1 triadimefon (TDM) for 10 h and then grown in a plant growth chamber with a light/dark temperature of 28/20 °C and a photoperiod of 14 h with a light intensity of 60 µmol m^–2 s^–1. 14-day-old seedlings were exposed to chilling stress with a light/dark temperature of 6/3 °C for 4 d. TDM improved the growth rate of cucumber seedling subjected to chilling stress and increased photosynthetic pigments contents and relative water content compared with the control at the end of chilling stress. Chilling stress decreased protein content and the activities of SOD, CAT and POD, but it increased proline, H₂O₂ and MDA accumulation, and relative electrical conductivity. TDM ameliorated the injury caused by chilling stress by preventing decreases in protein content and the activities of SOD, CAT and POD and by inhibiting increases in proline, H₂O₂ and MDA contents, and relative electrical conductivity, which suggested that TDM ameliorated the negative effect of chilling stress.     

Energy metabolism of Chironomus anthracinus (Diptera: Chironomidae) from the profundal zone of Lake Esrom,Denmark, as a function of body size,temperature and oxygen concentration

The profundal zone of Lake Esrom, Denmark has a dense population of Chironomus anthracinus, which survives 2–4 months of oxygen depletion each summer during stratification. The metabolism of 3rd and 4th instar larvae was examined in regard to variation in biomass and temperature. Respiration at air saturation was described by a curvilinear multiple regression relating oxygen consumption to individual AFDW and temperature. At 10 °C and varying oxygen regimes the O₂ consumption and CO₂ production of 4th instar larvae were almost unaltered from saturation to about 3 mg O₂ l^–1, but decreased steeply below this level. The respiratory quotient increased from 0.82 at saturation to about 3.4 at oxygen concentrations near 0.5 mg O₂ l^–1. This implied a shift from aerobic to partially anaerobic metabolism. At 0.5 mg O₂ l^–1 the total energy production equalled 20% of the rate at saturation of which more than one third was accounted for by anaerobic degradation of glycogen. This corresponded to a daily loss of 12 µg mg AFDW^–1 or approximately 5% of the body reserves. At unchanged metabolic rate the glycogen store would last three weeks, but long term oxygen deficiency causes a further suppression of the energy metabolism in C. anthracinus.     

Oxygen consumption rates of adults and chicks during brooding in king quail (Coturnix chinensis)

Oxygen consumption rates were measured in chicks (0–7 days of age), and in non-brooding and brooding adults. Brooded chicks maintained a constant oxygen consumption rate at a chamber ambient temperature of 10–35°C (0–5 days of age: 2.95ml O₂·g^-1·h^-1 and 6–17 days of age: 5.80 ml O₂·g^-1·h^-1) while unbrooded chicks increased oxygen consumption rate at ambient temperature below 30°C to double the brooded oxygen consumption rate at 25 and 15°C for chicks < 5 days of age and>5 days of age, respectively. The massspecific oxygen consumption rate of breeding male and females (non-brooding) were significantly elevated within the thermoneutral zone thermal neutral zone (28–35°C) in comparison to non-breeding adults. Below the thermal neutral zone, oxygen consumption rate was not significantly different. The elevation in oxygen consumption rate of breeding quail was not correlated with the presence of broodpatches, which developed only in females, but is a seasonal adjustment in metabolism. Male and females that actively brooded one to five chicks had significantly higher oxygen consumption rate than non-brooding quail at ambient temperature below 30°C. Brooding oxygen consumption rate was constant during day and night, indicating a temporary suppression of the circadian rhythm of metabolism. Brooding oxygen consumption rate increased significantly with brood number, but neither adult body mass nor adult sex were significant factors in the relationship between brooding oxygen consumption rate and ambient temperature. The proportion of daylight hours that chicks were brooded by parents was negatively correlated with ambient temperature. After chicks were 5 days old brooding time was reduced but brooding oxygen consumption rate was unchanged. Heat from the brooding parent appeared to originate mainly from the apteria under the wings and legs rather than the broodpatch. The parental heat contribution to chick temperature regulation below the chicks' thermal neutral zone is achieved by increasing parental thermal conductance by a feedback control similar to that suggested for the control of egg temperature via the brood-patch. It is concluded that the brooding period is an energetic burden to parent quail, and the magnitude of the cost increases directly with brood number and inversely with ambient temperature during this period. The oxygen consumption rate of brooding parents was 5.80–6.90 ml O₂·g^-1·h^-1 (ambient temperature 10–15°C) at night and up to 5.10 ml O₂·g^-1·h^-1 (ambient temperature 18°C) during the day, which are 100 and 40% higher than non-brooding birds, respectively.Abbreviations bm body mass - SMR standard metabolic rate - T _a ambient temperature - T _b body temperature - I/O₂ oxygen consumption rate - C _wet wet thermal conductance - TNZ thermal neutral zone - ANOVA analysis of variance - ANCOVA analysis of covariance     

Oxygen consumption rate in rotifers

The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) is a cumulative index of metabolic losses during aerobic metabolism. The generalized relationship of oxygen consumption rate (R, n1 O₂ ind^–1 h^–1) and dry body mass (M, µg) for rotifers is described by the equation: R = 9.15M^0.716. The level of rotifer metabolism is slightly lower than that of multicellular poikilothermic animals. Differences of OCR values in ontogenesis are substantial. Embryos and senile individuals are characterized by minimal OCR values. The OCR of oviparous females in the beginning of reproduction exceeds 2–3 times OCR values of juveniles. Differences in oxygen consumption intensity (OCI) are not so essential. OCR depends on food concentration. An increase of food concentration from 1.4 to 7.0 µg dry mass m1^–1 resulted in Brachionus calyciflorus in an OCR escalation of 2.5 times at 30°C, and 0.5 times at 25°C. Maximal OCR values occur at food concentration close to the saturation concentration for population growth rate. An exponential equation is adequate to describe R-t dependence for animals, long-term adapted to different constant temperatures (2 < Q₁₀ < 3). Acclimation effects observed during sharp temperature changes are determined by peculiarities of compensation reactions in species and separate populations. The formation of a zone of relative temperature independence of OCR (Q¹⁰ 1) at fluctuating temperature is observed. It is necessary to study enzymatic activities parallel to OCR and OCI measurements.     

Dioxygen uptake by isolated thylakoids from lettuce (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactuca sativa</Emphasis> L.): simultaneous measurements of dioxygen uptake,pH change of the medium and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters

The setup has been elaborated for the simultaneous measurements of dioxygen uptake, pH changes, and chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters of an isolated thylakoid suspension. Using this equipment we have found at least three kinetically distinguishable components in the response of dioxygen uptake and pH increase to light intensity in the range of 0–1600 μE m⁻² s⁻¹. The pH changes were not observed in the presence of uncouplers (2 μM valinomycin plus 2 μM nigericin) while O₂ uptake increased by about 10% and F _v /F _m ratio appeared to be unaffected by this treatment. Treatment with DNP-INT, an inhibitor of plastoquinol oxidation, led to a significant reduction of pH increase and O₂ consumption whereas F _v /F _m was impaired only to 71% of the control. Incubation with catalase (580 U/ml) caused a total inhibition of oxygen uptake, while the pH increased and the F _v /F _m ratio decreased to about 60% and 85% of the control, respectively. The addition of catalase after the irradiation period led to an evolution of the same amount of dioxygen as was consumed during the light period. These results show that hydrogen peroxide was formed in the investigated system and accumulated during illumination. On the basis of the obtained data, three sites of dioxygen reduction within isolated thylakoid membranes and the dependence of dioxygen uptake on the photosystem activities were discussed.     

Electrical responses of the marine ciliate Euplotes vannus (Hypotrichia) to mechanical stimulation at the posterior cell end

Electrical responses upon mechanostimulation at the posterior cell end were investigated in the marine hypotrichous ciliate Euplotes vannus. A new mechanostimulator was developed to mimic stimuli that are identical with those involved in cell-cell collisions. The receptor potential hyperpolarized by 18–35 mV within 12–25 msec, reached a peak value of -62 mV with a delay of 4–9 msec after membrane deformation, and was deactivated after 50–70 msec. Cirri were stimulated to beat accelerated backward. The corresponding receptor current exerted a similar time course with a peak of 2.4 nA. The shift of the reversal potential by 57.6 mV at a tenfold increase of [K⁺] ₀ identifies potassium ions as current carriers within the development of the receptor potential. An intracellular K concentration of 355 mmol/liter was calculated for cells in a medium that was composed similar to sea-water. The mechanically activated potassium current was totally inhibited by extracellular TEA and intracellular Cs⁺, and partially inhibited by extracellular 4-AP. The total inhibition of the current by injected EGTA points to a Ca dependence of the posterior mechanosensitivity. It was confirmed by the increase of the peak current amplitude with rising [Ca²⁺] ₀ . Sodium presumably repolarizes the receptor potential because the repolarization was delayed and after-depolarizations were eliminated in media without sodium. Since deciliation did not affect mechano-sensitivity, the corresponding ion channels reside within the soma membrane.The authors wish to thank Mr. Norbert Spreckelmeier from the electronics workshop and Mr. Herbert Lutter from the fine-mechanical workshop of the department for their excellent work, Mrs. G. Key and Mr. H. Mikoleit for skillful technical assistance and for preparing the figures. This work was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, SFB 171, C7.     

Activities of benthic nitrifiers in streams and their role in oxygen consumption

The in situ rates of oxygen consumption by benthic nitrifiers were estimated at 11 study sites in 4 streams. Two methods were used: an in situ respiration chamber method and a method involving conversion of nitrifying potential measurements to in situ rates. Estimates of benthic nitrogenous oxygen consumption (BNOC) rate ranged from 0–380 mmol of O₂ m^–2·day^–1, and BNOC contributed between 0–85% of the total benthic oxygen consumption rate. The activity of nitrifiers residing in the sediments was influenced by O₂ availability, temperature, pH, and substrate. Depending upon site, nitrification could approximate either first-order or zero-order kinetics with respect to ammonium concentration. The source of ammonium for benthic nitrifiers could be either totally from within the sediment or totally from the overlying water. Nitrate produced in the sediments could flux to the water above or be lost within the sediment. The sediments could act as a source (positive flux) or sink (negative flux) for both ammonium (–185 mmol·m^–2·day^–1 to +195 mmol·m^–2·day^–1) and nitrate (–135 mmol·m^–2·day^–1 to +185 mmol·m^–2·day^–1).This study provides evidence to suggest that measurements of down-stream mass flow changes in inorganic nitrogen forms may give poor estimates of in situ rates of nitrification in flowing waters.