The effect of temporary deprivation of lying and feeding on the behaviour and production of lactating dairy cows

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of depriving dairy cows of the ability to feed and lie down for short periods, on behaviour and production. In experiment 1, cows were deprived by confining them in pairs in a pen for 2 or 4 h, and they more frequently exhibited behaviour likely to suggest discomfort - leg stamping, repositioning themselves, shifting their weight between legs and butting. After deprivation, the cows deprived for 2 h made up their lost feeding time within 24 h, but cows deprived for 4 h did not restore their feeding time within the 41-h period of observation. Lying time was not restored in either treatment within the 41-h period. Milk yield was not affected by the treatment. However, in experiment 2, when cows were deprived of feeding and lying for 4 h, during which time their hooves were trimmed (which is likely to be a painful and stressful procedure and result in some discomfort for a period post-trimming) the evidence suggested that milk yield was reduced by approximately 2 l/day for 3 days, with corresponding increases during the subsequent 2 days. Walking speed on returning to the herd was the same as before the treatment. In summary, temporary deprivation of feeding and lying for 2 and 4 h/day induced behaviours that were indicative of discomfort and frustration but had no negative effect on milk production, except when 4 h of deprivation was accompanied by foot trimming.     

Validation of triaxial accelerometers to measure the lying behaviour of adult domestic horses

Examining the characteristics of an animal’s lying behaviour, such as frequency and duration of lying bouts, has become increasingly relevant for animal welfare research. Triaxial accelerometers have the advantage of being able to continuously monitor an animal’s standing and lying behaviour without relying on live observations or video recordings. Multiple models of accelerometers have been validated for use in monitoring dairy cattle; however, no units have been validated for use in equines. This study tested Onset Pendant G data loggers attached to the hind limb of each of two mature Standardbred horses for a period of 5 days. Data loggers were set to record their position every 20 s. Horses were monitored via live observations during the day and by video recordings during the night to compare activity against accelerometer data. All lying events occurred overnight (three to five lying bouts per horse per night). Data collected from the loggers was converted and edited using a macro program to calculate the number of bouts and the length of time each animal spent lying down by hour and by day. A paired t-test showed no significant difference between the video observations and the output from the data loggers (P=0.301). The data loggers did not distinguish standing hipshot from standing square. Predictability, sensitivity, and specificity were all >99%. This study has validated the use of Onset Pendant G data loggers to determine the frequency and duration of standing and lying bouts in adult horses when set to sample and register readings at 20 s intervals.     

Quantitative assessment of the effects of space allowance, group size and floor characteristics on the lying behaviour of growing-finishing pigs

To obtain quantitative information that can be later used in animal welfare modelling, the relationship between the lying behaviour of growing-finishing pigs (initial body weight (BW) between 19 and 87 kg) and different factors related to the housing conditions, with a potential negative effect on their welfare, was studied by means of a meta-analytical approach. Data from 22 experiments reported in 21 scientific publications were collected. The space allowance, expressed on an allometric basis by means of a k-value (m2/BW0.667), the group size (n) and the floor characteristics (fully and partly slatted v. non-slatted floor), as well as their significant two-way interactions were used as fixed effects, and the experiment was used as a random factor to take into account the interexperiment effect. Further regression analyses were performed on the predicted values of observations in order to improve the adjustment of data. A significant quadratic relationship was established between space allowance (k-value, P < 0.05; squared k-value, P < 0.01) and the percentage of time spent lying. A significant interaction between the k-value and the floor type was also found (P < 0.05), showing that the relationship between space allowance and lying behaviour is affected by the presence or absence of slats. Threshold k-values were obtained using broken-line analyses, being about 0.039 for slatted floors and almost double for non-slatted floors. Compared to other studies, these values suggest that the ability to rest as space availability decreases may be compromised before a reduced performance becomes apparent. Group size did not show a significant effect. Additional information should be added to the model, as further data become available, to adjust the proposed parameters as well as to try to include the effect of other important aspects such as that of ambient temperature.     

A new approach for categorizing pig lying behaviour based on a Delaunay triangulation method

Machine vision-based monitoring of pig lying behaviour is a fast and non-intrusive approach that could be used to improve animal health and welfare. Four pens with 22 pigs in each were selected at a commercial pig farm and monitored for 15 days using top view cameras. Three thermal categories were selected relative to room setpoint temperature. An image processing technique based on Delaunay triangulation (DT) was utilized. Different lying patterns (close, normal and far) were defined regarding the perimeter of each DT triangle and the percentages of each lying pattern were obtained in each thermal category. A method using a multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network, to automatically classify group lying behaviour of pigs into three thermal categories, was developed and tested for its feasibility. The DT features (mean value of perimeters, maximum and minimum length of sides of triangles) were calculated as inputs for the MLP classifier. The network was trained, validated and tested and the results revealed that MLP could classify lying features into the three thermal categories with high overall accuracy (95.6%). The technique indicates that a combination of image processing, MLP classification and mathematical modelling can be used as a precise method for quantifying pig lying behaviour in welfare investigations.     

The effect of breed and housing system on dairy cow feeding and lying behaviour

In Ireland there is growing interest in managing dairy cows on out-wintering pads (OWPs) during the winter, as a low cost alternative to housing indoors. This study investigated feeding and lying behaviour of two breeds of dairy cow (Holstein-Friesian and Norwegian Red) at pasture (PAS) and in winter (WIN) confinement. Cows (n = 36) were managed as one herd while lactating at PAS, then dried off on entering WIN on 17 November 2005 and assigned to one of the three treatments using a randomised complete block design: (1) indoor matted cubicles [IC], (2) unsheltered OWP [UP] and (3) sheltered OWP [CP] (feed system = concrete feedface). Feeding behaviour was recorded for 1 × 24 h period during PAS and WIN using IGER grazing behaviour recorders. Standing/lying was recorded every 5 min for 2 × 24 h periods at PAS and 1 × 24 h period during WIN using modified voltage dataloggers (Tinytag Plus, Chichester, UK). Although not compared statistically, cows spent more time feeding at PAS (530.7 ± 69.66 min/day) than in any winter confinement system (UP, IC, CP = 453.9 ± 37.36, IC = 462.7 ± 37.31 and CP = 505.9 ± 37.36 min/day). In contrast, cows spent more time lying during the winter period (UP, IC, CP = 11.7 ± 0.45, IC = 10.8 ± 0.39 and CP = 11.0 ± 0.39 h/day) than when at PAS (9.4 h/day). Holstein-Friesian cows had a higher bite rate and fewer mastications while feeding, than Norwegian Red cows (P < 0.05 for both). Shorter feeding times at WIN were likely primarily due to lower metabolic requirements associated with the dry period, although the higher fibre content of the silage may also have contributed. The increase in ruminating times between PAS and WIN is likely also due to the higher fibre content of silage than grass. Differences in feeding behaviour between breeds may be indicative of reduced motivation to ingest food quickly. This may be an indirect consequence of a selection index that has led to improvements in body condition and self-maintenance. The similarity in lying and feeding times during WIN indicates that during these winter weather conditions the feeding and lying behaviour of cows on unsheltered OWPs was not inhibited compared with sheltered cows.     

Effect of crate opening from day 3 postpartum to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour in domestic pigs

Temporary crating may be a more acceptable housing system for lactating sows than permanent crating and loose-housing because it combines benefits of both systems while reducing some of their limitations. It remains unclear whether nursing and sucking behaviour is influenced after crate opening. The aim of this study was to assess the short- (24 h post-crate opening) and long-term (day 25 postpartum (pp.)) effects of opening the farrowing crate from day 3 pp. to weaning on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sows were crated from 5 days prepartum either to weaning (permanently crated group; n = 14) or 3 days pp. (temporarily crated group; n = 13). Sows and their litters were observed on days 4 and 25. Duration of pre- and post-massages, nursing termination, number of piglets missing milk ejection and number of piglets fighting during pre- and post-massages were scored at 15-s intervals. Nursing success (i.e. with or without milk ejection) was also recorded. Data were analysed using PROC GLM and PROC GENMOD of SAS including housing, litter size and parity as fixed effects. Nursing behaviour did not differ between sows housed in temporary crates and those housed in permanent crates on days 4 and 25 pp., that is, same number of nutritive nursings (NNs), same proportion of non-NNs, same duration of post-massages and same proportion of termination of post-massages. There was only a housing effect on day 25; with sows having longer pre-massages in permanent crates (P < 0.05). Suckling behaviour was overall similar between treatments. There were no differences in the number of piglets attending pre- and post-massages, proportion of piglets fighting during pre-and post-massages and the proportion of piglets missing milk ejection on both days. The only housing effect was found on day 25 during which fewer piglets attended post-massages (P < 0.05) in permanent crates. Sows with larger litters terminated post-massages more often (P < 0.05), allowed shorter post-massages (P < 0.05) on day 4, and had more piglets miss milk ejection on days 4 and 25 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the results of this study showed that housing had a very limited effect on nursing and suckling behaviour. Sow and piglet behaviours were not altered after crate opening (short-term effect) and nursing was to some extent calmer (shorter pre-massages and more piglets attended post-massages) in temporary crates on day 25. Increased litter size impaired nursing and suckling behaviour of sows and piglets independently of the housing system.     

Validation of AfiTagII,a device for automatic measuring of lying behaviour in Holstein and Jersey cows on two different bedding materials

Lying behaviour is important for the welfare of the cow. Therefore, reliable electronic devices may improve the management of the cows, and the devices can be used as a tool in research. However, accelerometer-based devices measure acceleration, and an algorithm is therefore necessary for the calculation of lying behaviour. Thus, validation of such devices is imperative prior to use. The objective of this study was to validate the use of the AfiTagII device for measurements of the lying time and frequency of lying bouts of Danish Holstein (DH) and Danish Jersey (DJ) cows in a loose-house system on two different bedding materials. The validation included correlations and linear regression analyses of data collected by the AfiTagII compared with data collected both by direct observations and recordings from a previously validated device (IceQube). In total, 40 cows were observed directly with primiparous and multiparous DJ and DH cows, equally represented. Furthermore, 21 cows were monitored with both AfiTagII and IceQube devices, and data from both devices were collected simultaneously. The devices were attached to the hind leg of the cow. The estimates of the lying time from the AfiTagII device was highly correlated with the recordings from direct observations (r=0.98), and there was a linear relation between these with an intercept equal to 0 and a slope close to 1. The estimates of the lying time from the AfiTagII device was also highly correlated with the IceQube recordings (r=0.94). However, the intercept deviated from 0. The frequency of lying bouts recorded by the AfiTAgII compared to direct observations showed a positive predictive value of 0.96 for lactating cows on the slatted floor and of 0.85 for the dry cows on the deep bedding. The correlations between frequency of lying bouts recorded with the two devices were high (r=0.94), but the intercept deviated from 0. In conclusion, the AfiTagII has a high accuracy for the measurements of lying behaviour in both DH and DJ cows kept on different bedding materials.     

Daily rhythms of activity in horses housed in different stabling conditions

Total locomotor activity was studied in 10 Thoroughbreds housed under a natural 12/12 light/dark cycle. Five horses were housed in individual boxes, and five were housed in individual boxes with a paddock. In order to record locomotor activity, on each horse was placed an Actiwatch-Mini® (Cambridge Neurotechnology Ltd, UK), actigraphy-based data loggers that record a digitally integrated measure of motor activity. Locomotor activity in the different experimental conditions was evaluated by visual inspection. Average amount of activity (bout of activity/hour) during light and dark phase and cosine Peak (time of peak activity) were calculate using Actiwatch Activity Analysis 5.06. Student's t-test was used to determine significant differences. The results from this study underline the influence of stabling conditions on activity rhythms in horses; furthermore, we clearly established that in horses, the activity rhythm reaches its peak in the middle of the day.     

Effect of rubber mats and perforation in the lying area on claw and limb lesions of fattening pigs

Claw and leg lesions are frequently observed in finishing pigs and are likely to compromise their welfare. Providing softer than the usual concrete flooring may reduce both the frequency and severity of these lesions. Therefore, this study evaluated the influence of rubber mats and floor perforation in the lying area on claw and leg health of finishing pigs. A total of 240 Swiss Large White finishing pigs from on average 24.9 kg until 102.3 kg were used in four batches, with six groups of 10 animals per batch. The six experimental pens initially measured 1.85×3.55 m and were enlarged after 6 weeks to 1.85×5.25 m. In all pens, one third of the floor space was built as a defecating area consisting of a concrete floor with 15% perforation. The remaining two thirds of the pen were designed as a lying area whose floor quality differed between the pens. It either consisted of concrete elements or was covered with rubber mats, and perforation of both floor types was either 0%, 5% or 10%. All individuals were scored for claw and leg lesions at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the 12-week fattening period. Lesions were summarised in scores based on the results of a principal component analysis. The influence on lesion scores of floor material, amount of perforation in the lying area, assessment time, and sex was examined using mixed-models. The total claw lesion score and the total limb lesion score as well as the claw angle increased from the beginning to the end of the fattening period. The values for both scores were slightly lower for animals kept on rubber mats compared with animals kept on concrete floor. There was no effect of the percentage of perforation on the examined outcome variables. In conclusion, our results indicate that rubber mats in the lying area bring about improvements in some aspects of claw and leg health in fattening pigs, whereas there is no effect of floor perforation.     

Grouping horses according to gender—Effects on aggression, spacing and injuries

Many horse owners tend to group horses according to gender, in an attempt to reduce aggressive interactions and the risk of injuries. The aim of our experiment was to test the effects of such gender separation on injuries, social interactions and individual distance in domestic horses. A total of 66 horses were recruited from 4 different farms in Norway and Denmark and divided into six batches. Within each batch, horses were allotted into one mare group, one gelding group and one mixed gender group, with most groups consisting of three or four animals. After 4–6 weeks of acclimatisation, a trained observer recorded all social interactions using direct, continuous observation 1 h in the morning and 1 h in the afternoon for three consecutive days. Recordings of the nearest neighbour of each horse were performed using instantaneous sampling every 10 min. The horses were inspected for injuries before grouping, day 1 after grouping and after 4–6 weeks. No significant effect of gender composition was found on social interactions (P > 0.05), spacing (P > 0.07) or injuries (P > 0.23). Eighty percent of all aggressive interactions recorded were threats, not involving physical contact. Horses with the smallest space allowance showed the highest mean number of aggressive interactions (28.6 ± 6.1 interactions per 6 h) compared to the mean of all the other batches (8.3 ± 1.0 interactions per 6 h). Very few injuries were found and most were superficial. In conclusion, gender composition does not seem to have any effect on aggression level, spacing or injuries. However, the early social experience of horses, management of feeding and space allowance probably represents more important factors for successful group housing of domestic horses.     

The effects of farrowing nest size and width on sow and piglet behaviour and piglet survival

The ‘Werribee farrowing pen' (WFP) was developed as a loose housing alternative to the farrowing crate. The WFP occupies about twice the space of a crate and comprises two compartments, a ‘nest' and a ‘non-nest' area. In this experiment, we investigated the effects of reducing total pen space by modifying the dimensions of the ‘nest'. The hypothesis was that modifying ‘nest' size and width would not negatively affect piglet survival. A reduction in total floor space in the WFP may increase attractiveness for adoption of the system by pig producers. The experiment had a 2×2 factorial design with nine replicates and a total of 72 primiparous sows (Large White×Landrace) and their litters. All subjects were included to day 4 of lactation, but production data to weaning (day 23) was restricted to 36 litters. We examined the effects of ‘nest' size (large: L vs. small: S) and width (wide: W vs. narrow: N) on sow and piglet behaviours and piglet survival. The W, as compared to N treatment sows, had longer mean bouts of standing in the ‘nest' during 16–8 h pre-farrowing (3.7 vs. 2.0 min, P<0.01), suggesting that pre-farrowing (‘nesting') behaviour may have been adversely affected by narrow nest width. On the first 2 days of lactation, sow suckling grunts occurred more in the W than N treatment (14.1 and 8.0% of observations, P<0.01). However, this was due to an approximately 50% lower incidence in the SN treatment, as compared to the other treatments combined (5.9 and 12.7%). Piglets spent more (P<0.01) time at the udder in L vs. S (41 and 30%) and W vs. N nests (40 and 31%) and performed more (P<0.05) sucking behaviour (i.e., drinking milk from a teat) in L vs. S nests (2.5 and 1.2%). These differences were due to SN treatment litters sucking less than other treatments combined (0.9 vs. 2.2%). Of the 680 piglets born (n=72 litters), 3.8% were stillborn and 6.8% died between birth and day 4 of lactation. From day 5 to weaning (n=36 litters), 3.5% of piglets died, all due to Escherichia coli infection. While there were no effects of treatment on piglet survival, liveborn piglets were less likely (P<0.05) to die from E. coli in the L vs. S treatments (9/24 vs. 23/33 piglets). In conclusion, our results provide evidence that the size and width of the farrowing ‘nest' in a loose farrowing system may effect sow and piglet behaviours that may be relevant to piglet survival.     

ELA and fertility in American Standardbred horses

We have analysed the effects of ELA alleles and sire-dam ELA incompatibility on two measures of fertility, gestation length and foaling rate, in American Standardbred horses. Using multivariate statistical methods, we corrected for the effects of confounding factors such as dam and sire age, parity, inbreeding, and sire-dam kinship. These analyses revealed substantial differences between Standardbred trotters and pacers in the effects of several confounding factors. There appear to be no ELA effects on gestation length in either trotters or pacers. However our results suggest that there may be ELA effects on foaling rate associated with specific dam alleles, with sire-dam incompatibility, and possibly with specific sire alleles, and that these effects differ between trotters and pacers.     

Implications of domestication and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes

Farmed fishes are often selectively bred for desirable production traits, such as rapid growth, that brings with them behavioural differences. In addition, the striking differences in the environment experienced by wild and cultured fishes offers considerable scope both for unplanned, natural selection for different inherited behavioural phenotypes and for behavioural differences arising from differential experience. In this paper, the evidence that such processes have produced behavioural differences between wild and cultured fishes is reviewed in relation to feeding, antipredator responses, aggression and reproductive behaviour. The reported findings are discussed in relation to the concept of 'behavioural syndromes', or suites of co‐varying behavioural traits that adapt individuals of the same population to spatial and temporal variation in selection regimes. The implications of the behaviour of cultured fishes for their welfare in production cages, for the environmental impact of escapees on wild stocks and for the success of hatchery‐based restocking programmes are considered. The review inevitably concentrates on salmonids, in which such phenomena have been intensively researched.     

Effect of overlaying rubber on fully slatted concrete floors on hoof health and lying postures in finishing dairy-origin bulls offered two contrasting diets

Fully slatted concrete floors are labour-efficient, cost-effective and thus common in beef cattle housing. However, the welfare of cattle accommodated on them has been questioned. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of floor and diet on hoof health and lying behaviours of housed dairy-origin bulls, from a mean age of 8 months to slaughter at 15.5 months old. Forty-eight bulls, which had a mean initial live weight of 212 (SD = 23.7) kg, were allocated to one of four treatments, which consisted of two floors and two diets arranged in a 2 × 2 factorial design. The floors evaluated were a fully slatted concrete floor and a fully slatted concrete floor overlaid with rubber, while the diets offered were either a high concentrate diet or a grass-silage-based diet supplemented with concentrates. The mean total duration of the study was 216 days. Floor had no significant effect on claw measurements measured on day 62 or 139. However, bulls accommodated on slats overlaid with rubber had a tendency to have a higher front toe length measured pre-slaughter than those accommodated on concrete slats (P = 0.063). Floor had no significant effect on the net growth of toes or heels during the duration of the study. The number of bruises (P < 0.01) and the bruising score (P < 0.05) were significantly higher on day 62 in bulls accommodated on fully slatted concrete floors than on concrete slats overlaid with rubber, but there was no significant effect of floor on these parameters on day 139 or at the measurement taken pre-slaughter. There was a tendency for bulls accommodated on concrete slats to have a higher probability of having sole bruising at the end of the experiment than those accommodated on slats overlaid with rubber (P = 0.052). Diet had no significant effect on toe length or heel height, number of bruises, or overall bruising score at any time point of the study. There was little evidence in the current study to suggest that bulls lying on fully slatted concrete floors could not express lying postures similar to those on concrete slats overlaid with rubber.     

Comparison of three different farrowing systems: skin lesions and behaviour of sows with special regard to nursing behaviour in a group housing system for lactating sows

While group housing (GH) is mandatory in the European Union for the greater part of pregnancy, single housing in farrowing crates (FCs) during lactation that restrict sows in most of their natural behaviour patterns is still practised on a large scale. Research is urgently needed to develop alternative farrowing systems that improve sows’ welfare. Therefore, sows in three different farrowing systems – pens with FC, loose housing (LH) pens and GH for six sows – were compared regarding the level of skin injuries and their active and resting behaviour. A skin injury score was assessed for 15 body parts of 102 sows in six batches on 3 days (days 1, 14 and 34). In total, the active and resting behaviour of 77 sows in six batches was examined on 3 days (days 18, 25 and 32) between 0700 h and 1900 h by means of a scan sampling method. The suckling behaviour and the level of cross-suckling were analysed in GH by means of direct observation in four batches during three 4-h sampling periods (days 17, 24 and 31). No significant differences were found in total skin injuries when the sows entered the systems (day 1), but GH sows showed significantly higher total skin injuries compared to FC and LH sows in the middle (day 14) and at the end (day 34) of the lactation period. A significant difference between FC and LH sows was never seen. Differences were found for the proportion of different body postures between the three systems. The odds for lying in lateral recumbency versus standing and sitting versus standing were significantly higher for FC and LH sows compared to GH sows. Additionally, sows were significantly more likely to be standing as opposed to lying in lateral recumbency as the lactation period progressed. Cross-suckling was a frequent behaviour in GH, seen in 35.0% of all successful suckling bouts. However, only an average of 0.56 piglets per successful suckling bout was observed cross-suckling, suggesting only a few piglets were engaged in cross-suckling. In conclusion, the skin injury score was only moderately increased in GH compared to FC and LH and comparable to pregnant group-housed sows, both free farrowing systems seemed to be an environmental enrichment for lactating sows and good management cannot prevent the occurrence of cross-suckling in a GH system, but can probably reduce it.     

Maternal behaviour and peripartum levels of oestradiol and progesterone show little difference in Merino ewes selected for calm or nervous temperament under indoor housing conditions

Temperament influences the expression of maternal behaviour in sheep under experimental field conditions. We investigated whether maternal behaviour between ewes selected for a calm or nervous temperament is independent from environmental conditions. In addition, the level of maternal behaviour expressed by mothers is correlated with the concentration of hormones during the peripartum period. Therefore, we investigated whether the selection for temperament had resulted in hormonal differences between the two lines with regard to the hormones that could be involved in the onset of maternal behaviour. Oestradiol, progesterone and cortisol concentrations from 4 days before parturition to 24 h after parturition were determined from blood samples collected from 10 calm and 12 nervous ewes. Behavioural interactions between ewe and lamb were also recorded for 2 h starting at parturition. Mothers of both temperament lines showed adequate maternal behaviour under the controlled conditions of the study. Therefore, the results of the study do not suggest that selection for a calm or nervous temperament has profoundly affected the intrinsic ability of mothers to display adequate maternal behaviour. Hormonal differences between the two temperament lines were generally small and their possible influence on the display of maternal behaviour in the two temperament lines would have to be demonstrated.     

The effect of farrowing environment and previous experience on the maternal behaviour of sows in indoor pens and outdoor huts

Outdoor farrowing huts facilitate a less restricted maternal behaviour in sows compared with sows kept indoors in farrowing pens. The aim of our study was to investigate whether there are behavioural differences between primiparous sows kept outdoors in farrowing huts and indoors in pens, and whether the maternal behaviour during the second parity, when all sows were kept outdoors in farrowing huts, would differ between sows that have experienced the indoor or the outdoor environment, respectively, during their first parturition. A total of 26 Yorkshire×Swedish Landrace sows were studied. Of these, 11 sows were housed outdoors in farrowing huts during both parturitions (group=OUTOUT). The other 15 sows were kept indoors in a barn with single farrowing pens during their first parturition. During their second parturition, sows were kept outdoors in farrowing huts (group=INOUT). The behaviour was video recorded from 2 h prepartum to 48 h postpartum. The sows’ responsiveness to playbacks of a piglet’s screams was tested on days 2 to 3 postpartum. Parity 1: during the last 2 h prepartum, OUTOUT sows had a higher proportion of observations in the sternal lying position (P<0.01). During parturition, OUTOUT sows changed posture more often (P<0.05) and were lying less (P<0.05) than INOUT sows. All sows in both groups responded with ‘lifting head’ towards the playback of piglet scream, whereas 100% of OUTOUT sows and only 43% of INOUT sows thereafter were ‘getting up’ (P <0.01). Parity 2: There were no behavioural differences between INOUT and OUTOUT sows. In conclusion, it is not problematic for a second parity sow with initial maternal experience from an indoor farrowing pen to be kept outdoors in farrowing huts during its following farrowing.     

The short-term effects of increasing meal frequency on stereotypic behaviour of stabled horses

In this study, we investigated the effect of increasing the number of meals of concentrate (whilst maintaining the same daily intake) on the behaviour of stabled horses with particular reference to stereotypic activities. The study was carried out on a working equestrian yard with stables for up to 50 horses. A pilot study was used to record incidence of stereotypic behaviour and to select subjects for the main study. In this, the behaviour of 30 warm-blooded horses was recorded during their morning (08:30 h) and afternoon (16:30 h) concentrate feeds. Whilst there was a low incidence of stereotypic behaviour (5.6% of scans) in the population, they were more commonly observed in the afternoon (7.1%) than the morning observations (4.2%; P < 0.05). The higher incidence in the afternoon observation appeared to be related to the lower availability of high fibre forage during the afternoon meal. In the main study nine horses were fed their normal ration of concentrate divided between two, four or six equally sized meals. Their behaviour was compared with seven control horses, which received two meals per day throughout the trial. As the number of meals increased, the treatment horses showed a decrease in oral stereotypies (P < 0.01), but an increase in weaving (P < 0.05) and nodding (P < 0.01) prior to feeding. The control group increased weaving, nodding and oral stereotypies (all P < 0.05) as their yard-mates received more meals. Consequently there was an overall increase in incidence of stereotypy in both treatment and control horses with the increase in meal frequency. The study, therefore, suggests that dividing the stabled horses’ concentrate ration into a number of smaller meals may be an effective means of reducing oral stereotypies, but that pre-feeding stereotypies may persist and that the practise may increase the frequency of stereotypic behaviour on unfed horses in visual contact.     

Effects of housing differences upon activity budgets in captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi)

Activity budgets of captive sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi) were assessed from 500 hours of observational data obtained at the Duke University Primate Center (Durham, NC). Data were examined for behavioral differences according to gender, availability of intergroup contact, subspecies, indoor/outdoor housing, and enclosure size. Results showed few differences between the activity budgets of males and females. Several differences found in conjunction with availability of intergroup contact appeared to relate more to subspecific, than to contact, differences. Sifakas housed outdoors were more active, spending less time resting and more time in locomotion, feeding, and playing than sifakas housed indoors. The findings of this study implicate outdoor housing as a primary factor in stimulating activity in these rare prosimian primates.     

The role of human and mosquito behaviour in the efficacy of a house-based intervention

Housing improvement such as blocking eaves and screening windows can help in reducing exposure to indoor biting mosquitoes. The impacts of physical barriers could potentially be boosted by the addition of a mechanism that kills mosquitoes as they attempt to enter the house. One example is to combine household screening with EaveTubes, which are insecticide-treated tubes inserted into closed eaves that attract and kill host-searching mosquitoes. The epidemiological impact of screening + EaveTubes is being evaluated in a large cluster randomized trial in Cote d''Ivoire. The study presented here is designed as a complement to this trial to help better understand the functional roles of screening and EaveTubes. We began by evaluating householder behaviour and household condition in the study villages. This work revealed that doors (and to some extent windows) were left open for large parts of the evening and morning, and that even houses modified to make them more ‘mosquito proof’ often had possible entry points for mosquitoes. We next built two realistic experimental houses in a village to enable us to explore how these aspects of behaviour and household quality affected the impact of screening and EaveTubes. We found that screening could have a substantial impact on indoor mosquito densities, even with realistic household condition and behaviour. By contrast, EaveTubes had no significant impact on indoor mosquito density, either as a stand-alone intervention or in combination with screening. However, there was evidence that mosquitoes recruited to the EaveTubes, and the resulting mortality could create a community benefit. These complementary modes of action of screening and EaveTubes support the rationale of combining the technologies to create a ‘Lethal House Lure’.This article is part of the theme issue ‘Novel control strategies for mosquito-borne diseases’.