Electrostatic environment of hemes in proteins: pK(a)s of hydroxyl ligands

The pK(a)s of ferric aquo-heme and aquo-heme electrochemical midpoints (E(m)s) at pH 7 in sperm whale myoglobin, Aplysia myoblogin, hemoglobin I, heme oxygenase 1, horseradish peroxidase and cytochrome c oxidase were calculated with Multi-Conformation Continuum Electrostatics (MCCE). The pK(a)s span 3.3 pH units from 7.6 in heme oxygenase 1 to 10.9 in peroxidase, and the E(m)s range from -250 mV in peroxidase to 125 mV in Aplysia myoglobin. Proteins with higher in situ ferric aquo-heme pK(a)s tend to have lower E(m)s. Both changes arise from the protein stabilizing a positively charged heme. However, compared with values in solution, the protein shifts the aquo-heme E(m)s more than the pK(a)s. Thus, the protein has a larger effective dielectric constant for the protonation reaction, showing that electron and proton transfers are coupled to different conformational changes that are captured in the MCCE analysis. The calculations reveal a breakdown in the classical continuum electrostatic analysis of pairwise interactions. Comparisons with DFT calculations show that Coulomb's law overestimates the large unfavorable interactions between the ferric water-heme and positively charged groups facing the heme plane by as much as 60%. If interactions with Cu(B) in cytochrome c oxidase and Arg 38 in horseradish peroxidase are not corrected, the pK(a) calculations are in error by as much as 6 pH units. With DFT corrected interactions calculated pK(a)s and E(m)s differ from measured values by less than 1 pH unit or 35 mV, respectively. The in situ aquo-heme pK(a) is important for the function of cytochrome c oxidase since it helps to control the stoichiometry of proton uptake coupled to electron transfer [Song, Michonova-Alexova, and Gunner (2006) Biochemistry 45, 7959-7975].     

Electron transfer from heme bL to the [3Fe-4S] cluster of Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI)

We have investigated the functional relationship between three of the prosthetic groups of Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI): the two hemes of the membrane anchor subunit (NarI) and the [3Fe-4S] cluster of the electron-transfer subunit (NarH). In two site-directed mutants (NarGHI(H56R) and NarGHI(H205Y)) that lack the highest potential heme of NarI (heme b(H)), a large negative DeltaE(m,7) is elicited on the NarH [3Fe-4S] cluster, suggesting a close juxtaposition of these two centers in the holoenzyme. In a mutant retaining heme b(H), but lacking heme b(L) (NarGHI(H66Y)), there is no effect on the NarH [3Fe-4S] cluster redox properties. These results suggest a role for heme b(H) in electron transfer to the [3Fe-4S] cluster. Studies of the pH dependence of the [3Fe-4S] cluster, heme b(H), and heme b(L) E(m) values suggest that significant deprotonation is only observed during oxidation of the latter heme (a pH dependence of -36 mV pH(-1)). In NarI expressed in the absence of NarGH [NarI(DeltaGH)], apparent exposure of heme b(H) to the aqueous milieu results in both it and heme b(L) having E(m) values with pH dependencies of approximately -30 mV pH(-1). These results are consistent with heme b(H) being isolated from the aqueous milieu and pH effects in the holoenzyme. Optical spectroscopy indicates that inhibitors such as HOQNO and stigmatellin bind and inhibit oxidation of heme b(L) but do not inhibit oxidation of heme b(H). Fluorescence quench titrations indicate that HOQNO binds with higher affinity to the reduced form of NarGHI than to the oxidized form. Overall, the data support the following model for electron transfer through the NarI region of NarGHI: Q(P) site --> heme b(L) --> heme b(H) --> [3Fe-4S] cluster.     

Electron spin echo envelope modulation spectroscopic study of iron-nitrogen interactions in myoglobin hydroxide and Fe(III) tetraphenylporphyrin models.

The electron-nuclear coupling in low-spin iron complexes including myoglobin hydroxide (MbOH) and two related model compounds, Fe(III) tetraphenylporphyrin(pyridine)(OR-) (R = H or CH3) and Fe(III) tetraphenylporphyrin(butylamine)(OR-) was investigated using electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM) spectroscopy. The assignment of frequency components in ESEEM spectra was accomplished through the use of nitrogen isotopic substitution wherever necessary. For example, the proximal imidazole coupling in MbOH was investigated without interference from the contributions of porphyrin 14N nuclei after substitution of the heme in native Mb with 15N-labeled heme. Computer simulation of spectra using angle selected techniques enabled the assignment of parameters describing the hyperfine and quadrupole interactions for axially bound nitrogen of imidazole in MbOH, of axial pyridine and butylamine in the models, and for the porphyrin nitrogens of the heme in native MbOH. The isotropic component of axial nitrogen hyperfine interactions exhibits a trend from 5 to 4 MHz, with imidazole (MbOH) greater than pyridine greater than amine. The nuclear quadrupole interaction coupling constant e2Qq was near 2 MHz for all nitrogens in these complexes. The Qzz axis of the nuclear quadrupole interaction tensor for the proximal imidazole nitrogen in MbOH was found to be aligned near gz (gmax) in MbOH, suggesting that gz is near the heme normal. A crystal field analysis, that allows a calculation of rhombic and axial splittings for the d orbitals of the t2g set in a low-spin heme complex, based on the g tensor assignment gz greater than gy greater than gx, yielded results that are consistent with the poor pi-acceptor properties expected for the closed shell oxygen atom of the hydroxide ligand in MbOH. A discussion is presented of the unusual results reported in a linear electric field effect in EPR (LEFE) study of MbOH published previously [Mims, W. B., & Peisach, J. (1976) J. Chem. Phys. 64, 1074-1091].     

Alteration of sperm whale myoglobin heme axial ligation by site-directed mutagenesis

Three mutant proteins of sperm whale myoglobin (Mb) that exhibit altered axial ligations were constructed by site-directed mutagenesis of a synthetic gene for sperm whale myoglobin. Substitution of distal pocket residues, histidine E7 and valine E11, with tyrosine and glutamic acid generated His(E7)Tyr Mb and Val(E11)Glu Mb. The normal axial ligand residue, histidine F8, was also replaced with tyrosine, resulting in His(F8)Tyr Mb. These proteins are analogous in their substitutions to the naturally occurring hemoglobin M mutants (HbM). Tyrosine coordination to the ferric heme iron of His(E7)Tyr Mb and His(F8)Tyr Mb is suggested by optical absorption and EPR spectra and is verified by similarities to resonance Raman spectral bands assigned for iron-tyrosine proteins. His(E7)Tyr Mb is high-spin, six-coordinate with the ferric heme iron coordinated to the distal tyrosine and the proximal histidine, resembling Hb M Saskatoon [His(beta E7)Tyr], while the ferrous iron of this Mb mutant is high-spin, five-coordinate with ligation provided by the proximal histidine. His(F8)Tyr Mb is high-spin, five-coordinate in both the oxidized and reduced states, with the ferric heme iron liganded to the proximal tyrosine, resembling Hb M Iwate [His(alpha F8)Tyr] and Hb M Hyde Park [His(beta F8)Tyr]. Val(E11)Glu Mb is high-spin, six-coordinate with the ferric heme iron liganded to the F8 histidine. Glutamate coordination to the ferric iron of this mutant is strongly suggested by the optical and EPR spectral features, which are consistent with those observed for Hb M Milwaukee [Val(beta E11)Glu]. The ferrous iron of Val(E11)Glu Mb exhibits a five-coordinate structure with the F8 histidine-iron bond intact.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Human ferrochelatase: characterization of substrate-iron binding and proton-abstracting residues

The terminal step in heme biosynthesis, the insertion of ferrous iron into protoporphyrin IX to form protoheme, is catalyzed by the enzyme ferrochelatase (EC 4.99.1.1). A number of highly conserved residues identified from the crystal structure of human ferrochelatase as being in the active site were examined by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutants Y123F, Y165F, Y191H, and R164L each had an increased K(m) for iron without an altered K(m) for porphyrin. The double mutant R164L/Y165F had a 6-fold increased K(m) for iron and a 10-fold decreased V(max). The double mutant Y123F/Y191F had low activity with an elevated K(m) for iron, and Y123F/Y165F had no measurable activity. The mutants H263A/C/N, D340N, E343Q, E343H, and E343K had no measurable enzyme activity, while E343D, E347Q, and H341C had decreased V(max)s without significant alteration of the K(m)s for either substrate. D340E had near-normal kinetic parameters, while D383A and H231A had increased K(m)s for iron. On the basis of these data and the crystal structure of human ferrochelatase, it is proposed that residues E343, H341, and D340 form a conduit from H263 in the active site to the protein exterior and function in proton extraction from the porphyrin macrocycle. The role of H263 as the porphyrin proton-accepting residue is central to catalysis since metalation only occurs in conjunction with proton abstraction. It is suggested that iron is transported from the exterior of the enzyme at D383/H231 via residues W227 and Y191 to the site of metalation at residues R164 and Y165 which are on the opposite side of the active site pocket from H263. This model should be general for mitochondrial membrane-associated eucaryotic ferrochelatases but may differ for bacterial ferrochelatases since the spatial orientation of the enzyme within prokaryotic cells may differ.     

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy as a probe of coordination structure in green heme systems: iron chlorins and iron formylporphyrins reconstituted into myoglobin

A series of ferric low-spin derivatives of myoglobin containing its natural prosthetic group, iron protoporphyrin IX, and reconstituted with iron heme s (a formyl-substituted porphyrin) and iron methylchlorin have been examined using low-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Good agreement is observed between the EPR properties of parallel derivatives of natural myoglobin and heme s-myoglobin. Likewise, the EPR properties of parallel adducts of three types of iron chlorins, methylchlorin-myoglobin, sulfyomyoglobin (a myoglobin derivative known to contain a chlorin macrocycle) and synthetic chlorin models are similar to each other. The ferric chlorin systems are shown to exhibit increased tetragonality and decreased rhombicity values relative to protoporphyrin/formylporphyrin systems. Thus, EPR spectroscopy is a very useful technique with which to probe the coordination structure of naturally occurring iron chlorin proteins and the method can be used to distinguish between proteins containing iron formylporphyrins and iron chlorin prosthetic groups.     

The coordination of imidazole and substituted pyridines by the hemeoctapeptide N-acetyl-ferromicroperoxidase-8 (FeIINAcMP8)

The N-terminus acetylated ferric hemeoctapeptide from cytochrome c, N-acetylmicroperoxidase-8 (Fe(III)-NAcMP8) can be reduced by dithionite in aqueous solution to produce Fe(II)-NAcMP8. The UV-Vis spectrum has a broad Soret band and relatively poorly defined Q bands which is consistent with a mixture of a five-coordinate high spin species with His as the axial ligand and a six-coordinate, predominantly high spin species with His/H(2)O as axial ligands. There are two spectroscopically observable pK(a)s at 8.7+/-0.1 and 10.9+/-0.2 which are attributed to ionization of a heme propionic acid group and coordinated H(2)O, respectively; a pK(a) > or = 14 is due to ionization of the proximal His ligand. Equilibrium constants were determined by UV-Vis spectrophotometry at 25.0+/-0.2 degrees C and 0.5 M ionic strength (NaClO(4)) for the coordination of imidazole and a number of substituted pyridines, and complement available data for the ferric hemepeptide, allowing a comparison to be made of the affinity of an iron porphyrin with Fe in the +2 and +3 oxidation states towards these ligands. Imidazole is coordinated more strongly by the ferric porphyrin (log K=4.08) than by the ferrous porphyrin (log K=3.40). The equilibrium constants for coordination of pyridines by the ferric and ferrous porphyrins increase and decrease, respectively, with increasing ligand basicity. Values determined by cyclic voltammetry show the same dependence on the identity of the ligand. In the ferric porphyrin, the stability of the complex increases with the basicity of the ligand and hence its ability to donate electron density onto the metal. In the case of the more electron rich ferrous porphyrin, greater stability occurs with pyridine ligands that have an electron withdrawing group and hence can accept electron density from the metal. This is consistent with the midpoint reduction potentials E(1/2) of the pyridine complexes determined by cyclic voltammetry; E(1/2) is linearly dependent on, and becomes more negative with an increase in, ligand basicity. Log K for coordination of pyridines by the ferrous hemepeptide correlates well with the energy of the ligand frontier orbital with pi symmetry, suggesting that pi-bonding effects are significant in determining the strength of binding of pyridines by a ferrous porphyrin.     

Dynamics of heme in hemoproteins: proton NMR study of myoglobin reconstituted with iron 3-ethyl-2-methylporphyrin

The asymmetric 3-ethyl-2-methylporphyrin iron complex was synthetized and inserted into apomyoglobin. UV-visible spectroscopic studies demonstrated the capacity of iron to coordinate different exogenous axial ligands in ferrous and ferric forms. The position of synthetic heme into the hydrophobic pocket of the reconstituted myoglobin was investigated by ((1))H NMR spectroscopy. In absence of exogenous ligand, signals of the synthetic prosthetic group were not detected, suggesting a rotational disorder of the synthetic porphyrin into the heme pocket. This direct interconversion behavior is favored since site-specific interactions between the poorly substituted heme and protein in the chiral hydrophobic cavity were weak. Complexion of cyanide to the iron allowed to quench partially the heme reorientation and two interconvertible forms, around the meso-Cα-Cγ axis, were detected in solution.     

Self-assembly of heme A and heme B in a designed four-helix bundle: implications for a cytochrome c oxidase maquette

Heme A, a prosthetic group of cytochrome c oxidase [EC 1.9.3.1], has been introduced into two de novo designed four helix bundle proteins, [H10A24](2) and [H10H24](2), known to bind 2-4 equiv of heme B, respectively [Robertson, D. E., Farid, R. S., Moser, C. C., Mulholland, S. E., Pidikiti, R., Lear, J. D., Wand, A., J., DeGrado, W. F., and Dutton, P. L. (1994) Nature 368, 425-432]. [H10A24](2), [Ac-CGGGELWKL x HEELLKK x FEELLKL x AEERLKK x L-CONH(2)](2)(2), binds two heme A molecules per four-helix unit via bis-histidine ligation at the 10,10' positions with measured K(d) values of <0.1 and 5 nM, values much lower than those measured for heme B (K(d) values of 50 and 800 nM). The heme A-protein complex, [heme A-H10A24](2), exhibits well-defined absorption spectra in both the ferric and ferrous states, and an electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum characteristic of a low spin heme in the ferric form. A single midpoint redox potential (E(m8)) was determined for [heme A-H10A24](2) at -45 mV (vs SHE), which is significantly higher than that of the protein bound heme B (-130 and -200 mV). The observation of a single midpoint redox potential for [heme A-H10A24](2) and a pair of midpoints for [heme B-H10A24](2) indicates that the di-alpha-helical monomers are oriented in an anti topology (disulfides on opposite sides of bundle) in the former (lacking heme-heme electrostatic interaction) and syn in the latter. A mixture of global topologies was indicated by the potentiometric titration of the related [heme A-H10H24](2) which possess two distinct reduction potentials of +41 (31%) and -65 mV (69%). Self-assembly of the mixed cofactor heme A-heme B-[H10A24](2) was accomplished by addition of a single equivalent of each heme A and heme B to [H10A24](2). The single midpoint redox potential of heme B, E(m8) = -200 mV, together with the split midpoint redox potential of heme A in heme A-heme B-[H10A24](2), E(m8) = +28 mV (33%) and -65 mV (67%), indicated the existence of both syn and anti topologies of the two di-alpha-helical monomers in this four helix bundle. Synthesis of the mixed cofactor [heme A-heme B-H10H24](2) was accomplished by addition of a 2 equiv of each heme A and heme B to [H10H24](2) and potentiometry indicated the pair of hemes B resided in the 10,10' sites and heme A occupied the 24,24' sites. The results indicate that heme peripheral structure controls the orientation of the di-alpha-helical monomers in the four-helix bundle which are interchangeable between syn and anti topologies. In the reduced form, [heme A-H10A24](2), reacts quantitatively to form [carbonmonoxy-heme A-H10A24](2) as evidenced by optical spectroscopy. The synthetic [heme A-H10A24](2) can be enzymatically reduced by NAD(P)H with natural reductases under anaerobic conditions, and reversibly oxidized by dioxygen to the ferric form.     

Iron normal mode dynamics in (nitrosyl)iron(II)tetraphenylporphyrin from X-ray nuclear resonance data

The complete iron atom vibrational spectrum has been obtained by refinement of normal mode calculations to nuclear inelastic x-ray absorption data from (nitrosyl)iron(II)tetraphenylporphyrin, FeTPP(NO), a useful model for heme dynamics in myoglobin and other heme proteins. Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) provides a direct measurement of the frequency and iron amplitude for all normal modes involving significant displacement of (57)Fe. The NRVS measurements on isotopically enriched single crystals permit determination of heme in-plane and out-of-plane modes. Excellent agreement between the calculated and experimental values of frequency and iron amplitude for each mode is achieved by a force-field refinement. Significantly, we find that the presence of the phenyl groups and the NO ligand leads to substantial mixing of the porphyrin core modes. This first picture of the entire iron vibrational density of states for a porphyrin compound provides an improved model for the role of iron atom dynamics in the biological functioning of heme proteins.     

The reactions of heme- and verdoheme-heme oxygenase-1 complexes with FMN-depleted NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase. Electrons required for verdoheme oxidation can be transferred through a pathway not involving FMN

Electrons utilized in the heme oxygenase (HO) reaction are provided by NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). To investigate the electron transfer pathway from CPR to HO, we examined the reactions of heme and verdoheme, the second intermediate in the heme degradation, complexed with rat HO-1 (rHO-1) using a rat FMN-depleted CPR; the FMN-depleted CPR was prepared by dialyzing the CPR mutant, Y140A/Y178A, against 2 m KBr. Degradation of heme in complex with rHO-1 did not occur with FMN-depleted CPR, notwithstanding that the FMN-depleted CPR was able to associate with the heme-rHO-1 complex with a binding affinity comparable with that of the wild-type CPR. Thus, the first electron to reduce the ferric iron of heme complexed with rHO-1 must be transferred from FMN. In contrast, verdoheme was converted to the ferric biliverdin-iron chelate with FMN-depleted CPR, and this conversion was inhibited by ferricyanide, indicating that electrons are certainly required for conversion of verdoheme to a ferric biliverdin-iron chelate and that they can be supplied from the FMN-depleted CPR through a pathway not involving FMN, probably via FAD. This conclusion was supported by the observation that verdoheme dimethyl esters were accumulated in the reaction of the ferriprotoporphyrin IX dimethyl ester-rHO-1 complex with the wild-type CPR. Ferric biliverdin-iron chelate, generated with the FMN-depleted CPR, was converted to biliverdin by the addition of the wild-type CPR or desferrioxamine. Thus, the final electron for reducing ferric biliverdin-iron chelate to release ferrous iron and biliverdin is apparently provided by the FMN of CPR.     

Aplysia limacina myoglobin. Crystallographic analysis at 1.6 A resolution

The crystal structure of the ferric form of myoglobin from the mollusc Aplysia limacina has been refined at 1.6 A resolution, by restrained crystallographic refinement methods. The crystallographic R-factor is 0.19. The tertiary structure of the molecule conforms to the common globin fold, consisting of eight alpha-helices. The N-terminal helix A and helix G deviate significantly from linearity. The distal residue is recognized as Val63 (E7), which, however, does not contact the heme directly. Moreover the sixth (distal) co-ordination position of heme iron is not occupied by a water molecule at neutrality, i.e. below the acid-alkaline transition point of A. limacina myoglobin. The heme group sits in its crevice in the conventional orientation and no signs of heme isomerism are evident. The iron atom is 0.26 A out of the porphyrin plane, with a mean Fe-N (porphyrin) distance of 2.01 A. The co-ordination bond to the proximal histidine has a length of 2.05 A, and forms an angle of 4 degrees with the heme normal. A plane containing the imidazole ring of the proximal His intersects the heme at an angle of 29 degrees with the (porphyrin) 4N-2N direction. Inspection of the structure of pH 9.0 indicates that a hydroxyl ion is bound to the Fe sixth co-ordination position.     

Abortive assembly of succinate-ubiquinone reductase (Complex II) in a ferrochelatase-deficient mutant of Escherichia coli

Heme molecules play important roles in electron transfer by redox proteins such as cytochromes. In addition, a structural role for heme in protein folding and the assembly of enzymes has been suggested. Previous results obtained using Escherichia coli hemA mutants, which are unable to synthesize 5-aminolevulinic acid, a precursor of porphyrins and hemes, have demonstrated a requirement for heme biosynthesis in the assembly of a functional succinate-ubiquinone reductase (SQR or complex II), which is a component of the aerobic respiratory chain. In the present study, in order to investigate the role of the heme in the assembly of E. coli SQR, we used a hemH (encodes ferrochelatase) mutant that lacks the ability to insert iron into the porphyrin ring. The hemH mutant failed to insert functional SQR into the cytoplasmic membrane, and the catalytic portion of SQR [the flavoprotein subunit (Fp) and the iron-sulfur protein subunit (Ip)] was localized in the cytoplasm of the cell. It is of interest to note that protoporphyrin IX accumulated in the mutant cells and inactivated the cytoplasmic succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity associated with the catalytic Fp-Ip complex. In contrast, SQR was assembled into the membrane of a heme-permeable hemH double mutant when hemin was present in the culture. Only a low level of SQR activity was found in the membrane when hemin was replaced by non-iron metalloporphyrins: Mn-, Co-, Ni-, Zn- and Cu-protoporphyrin IX, or protoporphyrin IX These results indicate that heme iron is indispensable for the functional assembly of SQR in the cytoplasmic membrane of E. coli, and provide a new insight into the biological role of heme in the molecular assembly of the multi-subunit enzyme complex.     

A crystallographic study of deoxy cobalt (II) mesoporphyrin IX myoglobin.

The crystal structures of acid metmyoglobin and deoxy cobalt(II)mesoporphyrin IX myoglobin were compared by a difference Fourier analysis at 2.5 A resolution. No large differences in protein conformation were observed. The greatest density of structural differences was found in the heme region. There was a loss of the histidine-bound sulfate ion and of the metal-bound water molecule, as well as a shift in the position of the prosthetic group with associated changes in the adjacent globin. The structural changes resulting from the substitution of ethyl for the vinyl side chains of the porphyrin were clearly observed. There was also a suggestion of a conformational change of the porphyrin ring. It was not clear whether there was any change of the metal position relative to the porphyrin plane or proximal histidine.     

Crystal structure of rat heme oxygenase-1 in complex with biliverdin-iron chelate. Conformational change of the distal helix during the heme cleavage reaction

The crystal structure of rat heme oxygenase-1 in complex with biliverdin-iron chelate (biliverdin(Fe)-HO-1), the immediate precursor of the final product, biliverdin, has been determined at a 2.4-A resolution. The electron density in the heme pocket clearly showed that the tetrapyrrole ring of heme is cleaved at the alpha-meso edge. Like the heme bound to HO-1, biliverdin-iron chelate is located between the distal and proximal helices, but its accommodation state seems to be less stable in light of the disordering of the solvent-exposed propionate and vinyl groups. The middle of the distal helix is shifted away from the center of the active site in biliverdin(Fe)-HO-1, increasing the size of the heme pocket. The hydrogen-bonding interaction between Glu-29 and Gln-38, considered to restrain the orientation of the proximal helix in the heme-HO-1 complex, was lost in biliverdin(Fe)-HO-1, leading to relaxation of the helix. Biliverdin has a distorted helical conformation; the lactam oxygen atom of its pyrrole ring-A interacted with Asp-140 through a hydrogen-bonding solvent network. Because of the absence of a distal water ligand, the iron atom is five-coordinated with His-25 and four pyrrole nitrogen atoms. The coordination geometry deviates considerably from a square pyramid, suggesting that the iron may be readily dissociated. We speculate that the opened conformation of the heme pocket facilitates sequential product release, first iron then biliverdin, and that because of biliverdin's increased flexibility, iron release triggers its slow dissociation.     

The hemes of Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI): potentiometric effects of inhibitor binding to narI.

We have potentiometrically characterized the two hemes of Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI) using EPR and optical spectroscopy. NarGHI contains two hemes, a low-potential heme b(L) (E(m,7) = 20 mV; g(z)() = 3.36) and a high-potential heme b(H) (E(m, 7) = 120 mV; g(z)() = 3.76). Potentiometric analyses of the g(z)() features of the heme EPR spectra indicate that the E(m,7) values of both hemes are sensitive to the menaquinol analogue 2-n-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline N-oxide (HOQNO). This inhibitor causes a potential-inversion of the two hemes (for heme b(L), E(m,7) = 120 mV; for heme b(H), E(m,7) = 60 mV). This effect is corroborated by optical spectroscopy of a heme b(H)-deficient mutant (NarGHI(H56R)) in which the heme b(L) undergoes a DeltaE(m,7) of 70 mV in the presence of HOQNO. Another potent inhibitor of NarGHI, stigmatellin, elicits a moderate heme b(L) DeltaE(m,7) of 30 mV, but has no detectable effect on heme b(H). No effect is elicited by either inhibitor on the line shape or the E(m,7) values of the [3Fe-4S] cluster coordinated by NarH. When NarI is expressed in the absence of NarGH [NarI(DeltaGH)], two hemes are detected in potentiometric titrations with E(m,7) values of 37 mV (heme b(L); g(z)() = 3.15) and -178 mV (heme b(H); g(z)() = 2.92), suggesting that heme b(H) may be exposed to the aqueous milieu in the absence of NarGH. The identity of these hemes was confirmed by recording EPR spectra of NarI(DeltaGH)(H56R). HOQNO binding titrations followed by fluorescence spectroscopy suggest that in both NarGHI and NarI(DeltaGH), this inhibitor binds to a single high-affinity site with a K(d) of approximately 0.2 microM. These data support a functional model for NarGHI in which a single dissociable quinol binding site is associated with heme b(L) and is located toward the periplasmic side of NarI.     

Mutation of the heme-binding crevice of flavocytochrome b2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae: altered heme potential and absence of redox cooperativity between heme and FMN centers.

Kinetic and thermodynamic properties of yeast flavocytochrome b2 (EC 1.1.2.3) are modified by the product pyruvate, which binds to the flavosemiquinone (FSQ) form of the prosthetic flavin and decreases the thermodynamic driving force for electron transfer from FSQ to heme. Pyruvate inhibits flavocytochrome b2, but the catalytic competence of pyruvate-ligated FSQ in intramolecular electron transfer to heme is unclear; one kinetic study suggested pyruvate prevented this reaction [Tegoni, M, Janot J.-M., & Labeyrie, F. (1990) Eur. J. Biochem. 190, 329-342], while laser flash photolysis indicated pyruvate was essential [Walker, M. C., & Tollin, G. (1991) Biochemistry 30, 5546-5555]. To address this problem, wild-type (WT) and mutant (L36I) flavocytochromes b2 have been expressed in Escherichia coli. Both forms incorporated heme and FMN prosthetic groups and were catalytically active. The mutation L36I was a conservative substitution within the heme-binding crevice and was designed to alter the midpoint potential (Em) of the heme to alter the pyruvate-FSQ/heme equilibrium. Potentiometric titrations yielded Em values (pH 7.0, 25 degrees C) of +8 and -28 mV for WT and L36I forms, respectively. The FMN midpoint potentials in the absence of pyruvate (-58 mV, n = 2) were identical within experimental error in WT and L36I species and were also identical (+5 mV, n = 1) in the presence of pyruvate. These results indicated the absence of redox cooperativity between FMN and heme.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Cytochrome c(552) from Thermus thermophilus engineered for facile substitution of prosthetic group

The facile replacement of heme c in cytochromes c with non-natural prosthetic groups has been difficult to achieve due to two thioether linkages between cysteine residues and the heme. Fee et al. demonstrated that cytochrome c(552) from Thermus thermophilus, overproduced in the cytosol of E. coli, has a covalent linkage cleavable by heat between the heme and Cys11, as well as possessing the thioether linkage with Cys14 [Fee, J. A. (2004) Biochemistry 43, 12162-12176]. Prompted by this result, we prepared a C14A mutant, anticipating that the heme species in the mutant was bound to the polypeptide solely through the thermally cleavable linkage; therefore, the removal of the heme would be feasible after heating the protein. Contrary to this expectation, C14A immediately after purification (as-purified C14A) possessed no covalent linkage. An attempt to extract the heme using a conventional acid-butanone method was unsuccessful due to rapid linkage formation between the heme and polypeptide. Spectroscopic analyses suggested that the as-purified C14A possessed a heme b derivative where one of two peripheral vinyl groups had been replaced with a group containing a reactive carbonyl. A reaction of the as-purified C14A with [BH(3)CN](-) blocked the linkage formation on the carbonyl group, allowing a quantitative yield of heme-free apo-C14A. Reconstitution of apo-C14A was achieved with ferric and ferrous heme b and zinc protoporphyrin. All reconstituted C14As showed spontaneous covalent linkage formation. We propose that C14A is a potential source for the facile production of an artificial cytochrome c, containing a non-natural prosthetic group.     

Heme redox potential control in de novo designed four-alpha-helix bundle proteins

The effects of various mechanisms of metalloporphyrin reduction potential modulation were investigated experimentally using a robust, well-characterized heme protein maquette, synthetic protein scaffold H10A24 [?CH(3)()CONH-CGGGELWKL.HEELLKK.FEELLKL.AEERLKK. L-CONH(2)()?(2)](2). Removal of the iron porphyrin macrocycle from the high dielectric aqueous environment and sequestration within the hydrophobic core of the H10A24 maquette raises the equilibrium reduction midpoint potential by 36-138 mV depending on the hydrophobicity of the metalloporphyrin structure. By incorporating various natural and synthetic metalloporphyrins into a single protein scaffold, we demonstrate a 300-mV range in reduction potential modulation due to the electron-donating/withdrawing character of the peripheral macrocycle substituents. Solution pH is used to modulate the metalloporphyrin reduction potential by 160 mV, regardless of the macrocycle architecture, by controlling the protonation state of the glutamate involved in partial charge compensation of the ferric heme. Attempts to control the reduction potential by inserting charged amino acids into the hydrophobic core at close proximity to the metalloporphyrin lead to varied success, with H10A24-L13E lowering the E(m8.5) by 40 mV, H10A24-E11Q raising it by 50 mV, and H10A24-L13R remaining surprisingly unaltered. Modifying the charge of the adjacent metalloporphyrin, +1 for iron(III) protoporphyrin IX or neutral for zinc(II) protoporphyrin IX resulted in a loss of 70 mV [Fe(III)PPIX](+) - [Fe(III)PPIX](+) interaction observed in maquettes. Using these factors in combination, we illustrate a 435-mV variation of the metalloporphyrin reduction midpoint potential in a simple heme maquette relative to the about 800-mV range observed for natural cytochromes. Comparison between the reduction potentials of the heme maquettes and other de novo designed heme proteins reveals global trends in the E(m) values of synthetic cytochromes.