过表达周期蛋白Cyc28影响四膜虫的有性生殖进程

真核生物的细胞周期通过连续的激活和失活特定的周期蛋白/周期蛋白依赖性激酶复合物活性进行调控。嗜热四膜虫含有34种周期蛋白,有性生殖期特异表达的周期蛋白Cyc2和Cyc17在四膜虫小核减数分裂中发挥重要功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种新的周期蛋白CYC28 (TTHERM_00082190)基因,预测编码266个氨基酸。实时荧光定量PCR表明,CYC28在有性生殖时期特异表达,且在4 h表达水平最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控下的HA-CYC28突变体细胞。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cyc28定位在细胞质和凋亡的亲本大核中。分别构建CYC28敲除突变株和RNA干扰细胞株,对CYC28敲减突变体细胞的分析发现,营养生长和有性生殖期突变细胞发育正常。然而,过表达株Cyc28突变体引起原核染色体排列异常,原核不能完成有丝分裂形成配子核,有性生殖进程终止。结果表明,Cyc28参与细胞的有性生殖进程,它的正常表达和降解对原核有丝分裂的完成是必需的。     

过表达周期蛋白Cyc28影响四膜虫的有性生殖进程北大核心CSCD

真核生物的细胞周期通过连续的激活和失活特定的周期蛋白/周期蛋白依赖性激酶复合物活性进行调控。嗜热四膜虫含有34种周期蛋白,有性生殖期特异表达的周期蛋白Cyc2和Cyc17在四膜虫小核减数分裂中发挥重要功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫中鉴定出一种新的周期蛋白CYC28(TTHERM_00082190)基因,预测编码266个氨基酸。实时荧光定量PCR表明,CYC28在有性生殖时期特异表达,且在4 h表达水平最高。通过同源重组构建获得MTT1启动子调控下的HA-CYC28突变体细胞。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Cyc28定位在细胞质和凋亡的亲本大核中。分别构建CYC28敲除突变株和RNA干扰细胞株,对CYC28敲减突变体细胞的分析发现,营养生长和有性生殖期突变细胞发育正常。然而,过表达株Cyc28突变体引起原核染色体排列异常,原核不能完成有丝分裂形成配子核,有性生殖进程终止。结果表明,Cyc28参与细胞的有性生殖进程,它的正常表达和降解对原核有丝分裂的完成是必需的。     

错配修复蛋白Tmlh1维持嗜热四膜虫细胞核的稳定性

DNA错配修复(DNA mismatch repair,MMR)蛋白Mlh1和其它因子形成多种不同的复合物,在DNA复制后的MMR途径和减数分裂DNA重组中发挥重要作用。然而对Mlh1的功能并不完全清楚,进一步分析Mlh1在不同进化地位生物中的功能具有重要意义。嗜热四膜虫(Tetrahymena thermophila)含有不同的错配修复复合物,基因表达谱分析发现,MutL复合物中的TMLH1(TTHERM_00127000)在营养生长期和饥饿期低水平表达,在有性生殖减数分裂期表达水平显著上调。免疫荧光定位显示营养生长期,Tmlh1定位于生殖系小核和转录活跃的大核;有性生殖期,定位于功能性小核和亲本大核,但在凋亡的大核和小核中消失。在减数分裂和有丝分裂时期,Tmlh1和α-微管蛋白(α-tubulin)存在共定位;而有性生殖后期,Tmlh1与异染色质蛋白Pdd1共定位于DNA删除的异染色结构域。TMLH1敲除细胞增殖速率降低,DNA损伤修复抑制,导致有性生殖细胞配对率降低和微核形成。1 mmol/L甲基甲磺酸甲酯(methy methanesulfonate, MMS)处理下,ΔTMLH1细胞传代时间增加了4.53%±0.35%,而野生型细胞传代时间增加了0.60%±0.14%。TMLH1敲除突变细胞株小核上呈现强烈的γ-H2A.X的荧光信号。免疫共沉淀和蛋白质谱分析发现,Tmlh1同微管蛋白、错配修复因子MutS、同源重组修复关键因子Rad51,非同源末端修复因子Ku80因子等存在相互作用。这些结果表明,嗜热四膜虫错配修复蛋白Tmlh1通过多种途径参与DNA修复和基因组重排,从而维持四膜虫生长发育和有性生殖过程中细胞核的稳定性。     

抗沉默因子Asf1调控嗜热四膜虫细胞核的稳定性

组蛋白H3/H4的分子伴侣Asf1(anti-silencing factor 1),参与依赖DNA复制及不依赖DNA复制的核小体装配,同时参与转录调控、基因沉默以及DNA损伤修复等过程. 在不同生物中,Asf1具有功能的保守性和多样性．嗜热四膜虫ASF1（TTHERM_00442300）基因编码的蛋白质含有保守的N端结构域和酸性的C端结构域．N端结构域同源序列进化树分析表明,Asf1进化与物种进化一致．实时荧光定量PCR表明,ASF1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿及有性生殖时期均有表达,且在有性生殖4～6 h转录水平达到最高．免疫荧光定位分析表明,HA-Asf1在营养生长时期以及有性生长时期定位于功能大核和小核中,而在凋亡的大核中信号消失．过表达ASF1导致大核及小核变大,抑制细胞增殖．敲减ASF1后会导致大核形态异常,小核缺失．结果表明,ASF1表达对细胞核的形态和结构维持发挥重要的调控作用．     

错配修复蛋白Mlh3对四膜虫有性生殖是必需的

DNA错配修复(mismatch repair, MMR)是一种进化中保守的机制,它校正DNA复制过程中产生的错误,维持基因组的稳定性。MMR家族蛋白同时也参与多种DNA相关的生物学功能。本研究从嗜热四膜虫鉴定了一种新的错配修复蛋白MLH3基因,该基因预测编码 319 个氨基酸,在有性生殖期特异表达。免疫荧光定位表明,HA-Mlh3定位在有性生殖期减数分裂的小核和新发育的大核中。MLH3 敲除的突变体细胞株,在有性生殖发育期停滞在两大核和两小核阶段,新大核DNA复制受阻。γ-H2A.X 检测表明,新大核和小核有性生殖后期断裂的基因组不能正常修复,发育中的细胞裂解,不能形成有性生殖后代。结果表明,Mlh3参与四膜虫新大核发育过程基因组的断裂修复和复制,对四膜虫的有性生殖是必需的。     

金属离子促进嗜热四膜虫错配修复蛋白Mlh3核酸内切酶活性

嗜热四膜虫有性生殖过程中生殖系小核延伸并活跃转录,减数分裂过程中染色体同源重组起始于程序化的DNA双链断裂的形成,DNA错配修复系统能够去除DNA复制过程中所引起的错配并促进同源重组。减数分裂特异表达的错配修复因子Mlh3对四膜虫的有性生殖是必需的,然而具体功能并不清楚。本研究人工合成MLH3（TTHERM_001044369）基因,构建重组表达质粒pGEX-MLH3, 转化大肠杆菌BL21（DE3）并获得重组表达的GST-Mlh3蛋白。纯化的GST-Mlh3蛋白在配位不同的金属离子Cu2+、Mn2+、Mg2+后,有效切割超螺旋质粒DNA。ATP和ADP可进一步促进Mlh3的核酸内切酶活性。突变Mlh3中离子结合模体DQHA(X)2E(E)4E中的D117和E123位点,Mlh3D117N/E123A的核酸内切酶活性降低。进一步删除离子结合和ATP结合位点的C端结构域,突变体的核酸内切酶活性进一步降低,表明Mlh3的核酸内切酶活性是离子依赖型。减数分裂期HA-Mlh3免疫共沉淀鉴定了Mlh3可能的相互作用因子链交换蛋白Dmc1、DSB修复蛋白Mnd1、MutS、染色体维持蛋白Smc2和Smc4。结果表明,四膜虫的Mlh3通过金属离子依赖的内切酶活性,以及与其他因子相互作用,在减数分裂错配修复和同源重组过程中发挥重要作用。     

嗜热四膜虫染色体浓缩调节因子(RCC1)的定位及功能分析

真核细胞中染色体浓缩调节因子（regulator of chromosome condensation 1, RCC1）是 RanGTPase 唯一的鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子. 染色质结合的RCC1和RanGTPase相互作用,催化细胞核内RanGDP向RanGTP的转化,进而调控了核质间的定向运送、有丝分裂期纺锤体的组装以及核膜的形成. 本实验从原生生物嗜热四膜虫大核基因组中鉴定了1个新的RCC1（TTHERM_00530380）基因. 该基因全长2 541 bp,包含2个内含子序列,开放阅读框为2 181 bp,编码726个氨基酸. 实时荧光定量PCR表明,RCC1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿以及有性生殖时期都有表达,且在有性生殖转录水平达到最高. 免疫荧光定位分析表明, HA RCC1在营养生长和饥饿时期,定位于大核和小核中|在有性生殖时期,定位于亲本大核、减数分裂的小核、新生成的大核和凋亡的大核中. 过表达RCC1导致大核的无丝分裂异常, 细胞增殖变慢,最终产生无大核的后代细胞. 敲减RCC1导致了多小核的产生. 结果表明,RCC1参与调控了四膜虫细胞核的分裂, RCC1的正常表达对核分裂以及细胞增殖起到重要的调控作用.     

嗜热四膜虫染色体浓缩调节因子(RCC1)的定位及功能

真核细胞中染色体浓缩调节因子(regulator of chromosome condensation 1,RCC1)是RanGTPase唯一的鸟嘌呤核苷酸交换因子.染色质结合的RCC1和RanGTPase相互作用,催化细胞核内RanGDP向RanGTP的转化,进而调控了核质间的定向运送、有丝分裂期纺锤体的组装以及核膜的形成.本实验从原生生物嗜热四膜虫大核基因组中鉴定了1个新的RCC1(TTHERM_00530380)基因.该基因全长2 541 bp,包含2个内含子序列,开放阅读框为2 181 bp,编码726个氨基酸.实时荧光定量PCR表明,RCC1在四膜虫营养生长、饥饿以及有性生殖时期都有表达,且在有性生殖转录水平达到最高.免疫荧光定位分析表明,HA-RCC1在营养生长和饥饿时期,定位于大核和小核中;在有性生殖时期,定位于亲本大核、减数分裂的小核、新生成的大核和凋亡的大核中.过表达RCC1导致大核的无丝分裂异常,细胞增殖变慢,最终产生无大核的后代细胞.敲减RCC1导致了多小核的产生.结果表明,RCC1参与调控了四膜虫细胞核的分裂,RCC1的正常表达对核分裂以及细胞增殖起到重要的调控作用.     

八肋游仆虫第二类肽链释放因子核定位信号分析

蛋白质合成终止过程中肽链释放因子负责终止密码子的识别.真核生物第二类肽链释放因子（eRF3）是一类GTP酶,协助第一类肽链释放因子（eRF1）识别终止密码子和水解肽酰 tRNA酯键.之前的研究表明,两类肽链释放因子在细胞核中发挥功能,参与蛋白质合成和纺锤体的组装.本研究根据软件预测结果,构建了一系列八肋游仆虫eRF3的截短型突变体,分析在其N端是否存在引导eRF3的核定位信号.结果表明,在eRF3的N端有两个区域（NLS1:23-36 aa 和 NLS2: 236-272 aa）可以引导eRF3进入细胞核中,而且这两个区域具有典型的核定位信号的氨基酸序列特征. eRF3的核定位与其作为一种穿梭蛋白的功能相一致,即参与细胞有丝分裂纺锤体的形成和无义介导的mRNA降解途径.     

周期蛋白Cyc2的过量表达及突变抑制嗜热四膜虫有性生殖发育

周期蛋白在细胞增殖过程中呈现周期性表达变化,不同的周期蛋白通过结合周期蛋白激酶(cyclin-dependent kinase,CDKs)及靶向特定蛋白质参与细胞有丝分裂和减数分裂过程的精确调控。嗜热四膜虫有性生殖期特异表达的B3型周期蛋白Cyc2(cyclin 2,Cyc2)对减数分裂的启始是必需的,但Cyc2蛋白的分子调控机制并不清楚。本研究通过0.1μg/mL和0.3μg/mL镉离子诱导突变细胞株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428中CYC2基因在金属硫蛋白1基因(metallothionein gene 1,MTT1)启动子调控下上调表达。实时荧光定量PCR检测突变株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428中CYC2的转录水平分别上调7.8倍和9.8倍。细胞有性生殖发育进程的荧光显微观察发现CYC2的表达上调并不影响有性生殖前期减数分裂的启始,但是干扰四膜虫有性生殖后期中新大核和新小核的正确形成。同时突变株OE-CYC2-B2086和OE-CYC2-CU428交配后,在镉离子诱导下不能产生有性生殖后代,但是该突变株分别和两种不同野生型细胞或CYC2敲除的突变细胞株交配能够恢复产生3%,15%或32%的有性生殖后代,有性生殖发育异常程度与CYC2的表达水平成正相关。进一步突变Cyc2第312位磷酸化位点丝氨酸为丙氨酸,获得CYC2单位点突变细胞株CYC2-S312A-B和CYC2-S312A-C。丝氨酸单位点突变阻止了四膜虫有性生殖期小核减数第1次分裂起始。结果表明周期蛋白2的表达水平和磷酸化修饰影响了不同阶段细胞核的功能,周期蛋白2对四膜虫有性生殖发育的正常进行是必需的。     

Kinesin‐14 is Important for Chromosome Segregation During Mitosis and Meiosis in the Ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila

Ciliates such as Tetrahymena thermophila have two distinct nuclei within one cell: the micronucleus that undergoes mitosis and meiosis and the macronucleus that undergoes amitosis, a type of nuclear division that does not involve a bipolar spindle, but still relies on intranuclear microtubules. Ciliates provide an opportunity for the discovery of factors that specifically contribute to chromosome segregation based on a bipolar spindle, by identification of factors that affect the micronuclear but not the macronuclear division. Kinesin‐14 is a conserved minus‐end directed microtubule motor that cross‐links microtubules and contributes to the bipolar spindle sizing and organization. Here, we use homologous DNA recombination to knock out genes that encode kinesin‐14 orthologues (KIN141, KIN142) in Tetrahymena. A loss of KIN141 led to severe defects in the chromosome segregation during both mitosis and meiosis but did not affect amitosis. A loss of KIN141 altered the shape of the meiotic spindle in a way consistent with the KIN141's contribution to the organization of the spindle poles. EGFP‐tagged KIN141 preferentially accumulated at the spindle poles during the meiotic prophase and metaphase I. Thus, in ciliates, kinesin‐14 is important for nuclear divisions that involve a bipolar spindle.     

Metazoan motor models: kinesin superfamily in C. elegans

In eukaryotic cells members of the kinesin family mediate intracellular transport by carrying cellular cargo on microtubule tracks. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans genome encodes 21 members of the kinesin family, which show significant homology to their mammalian orthologs. Based on motor domain sequence homology and placement of the motor domain in the protein, the C. elegans kinesins have been placed in eight distinct groups; members of which participate in embryonic development, protein transport, synaptic membrane vesicles movement and in the axonal growth. Among 21 kinesins, at least 11 play a central role in spindle movement and chromosomal segregation. Understanding the function of C. elegans kinesins and related proteins may help navigate through the intricacies of intracellular traffic in a simple animal.     

TOGp, the human homolog of XMAP215/Dis1, is required for centrosome integrity, spindle pole organization, and bipolar spindle assembly

The XMAP215/Dis1 MAP family is thought to regulate microtubule plus-end assembly in part by antagonizing the catastrophe-promoting function of kin I kinesins, yet XMAP215/Dis1 proteins localize to centrosomes. We probed the mitotic function of TOGp (human homolog of XMAP215/Dis1) using siRNA. Cells lacking TOGp assembled multipolar spindles, confirming results of Gergely et al. (2003. Genes Dev. 17, 336-341). Eg5 motor activity was necessary to maintain the multipolar morphology. Depletion of TOGp decreased microtubule length and density in the spindle by approximately 20%. Depletion of MCAK, a kin I kinesin, increased MT lengths and density by approximately 20%, but did not disrupt spindle morphology. Mitotic cells lacking both TOGp and MCAK formed bipolar and monopolar spindles, indicating that TOGp and MCAK contribute to spindle bipolarity, without major effects on MT stability. TOGp localized to centrosomes in the absence of MTs and depletion of TOGp resulted in centrosome fragmentation. TOGp depletion also disrupted MT minus-end focus at the spindle poles, detected by localizations of NuMA and the p150 component of dynactin. The major functions of TOGp during mitosis are to focus MT minus ends at spindle poles, maintain centrosome integrity, and contribute to spindle bipolarity.     

Kinesin-II Is Preferentially Targeted to Assembling Cilia and Is Required for Ciliogenesis and Normal Cytokinesis in Tetrahymena

We cloned two genes, KIN1 and KIN2, encoding kinesin-II homologues from the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila and constructed strains lacking either KIN1 or KIN2 or both genes. Cells with a single disruption of either gene showed partly overlapping sets of defects in cell growth, motility, ciliary assembly, and thermoresistance. Deletion of both genes resulted in loss of cilia and arrests in cytokinesis. Mutant cells were unable to assemble new cilia or to maintain preexisting cilia. Double knockout cells were not viable on a standard medium but could be grown on a modified medium on which growth does not depend on phagocytosis. Double knockout cells could be rescued by transformation with a gene encoding an epitope-tagged Kin1p. In growing cells, epitope-tagged Kin1p preferentially accumulated in cilia undergoing active assembly. Kin1p was also detected in the cell body but did not show any association with the cleavage furrow. The cell division arrests observed in kinesin-II knockout cells appear to be induced by the loss of cilia and resulting cell paralysis.     

Novel interactions of fission yeast kinesin 8 revealed through in vivo expression of truncation alleles

Fission yeast expresses two kinesin 8s, klp5+ and klp6+, which are important for diverse cellular functions: mitosis, meiosis, and the maintenance of normal cell morphology. During vegetative growth these motors display complex localization patterns, moving from the cytoplasm during interphase to the kinetochores in early mitosis, the interpolar spindle in anaphase B, and then back into the cytoplasm. We have expressed GFP-tagged alleles of domains from these motors, seeking the signals required for their localizations. The tail of Klp5p localized to the interphase nucleus, more specifically to telomeres. Addition of the neck re-directed this fragment to microtubules in the cytoplasm. Klp6-tail and the neck-tail domains of both motors localized at microtubule ends. Klp6-neck-tail localized to the spindle in early mitosis but to the pole-proximal ends of the spindle in anaphase B. The Klp5-motor and motor-neck localized to microtubules, often causing them to bundle. Over-expression of Klp6-motor or motor-neck resulted in shorter microtubules. These localization patterns were no different when constructs were expressed in strains lacking either or both of the endogenous, full-length proteins. Our results indicate that the localization signals for these kinesins are not derived from simple amino acid sequences but from complex interactions among multiple domains of each motor.     

Kin I kinesins: insights into the mechanism of depolymerization

Kin I kinesins are members of the diverse kinesin superfamily of molecular motors. Whereas most kinesins use ATP to move along microtubules, Kin I kinesins depolymerize microtubules rather than walk along them. Functionally, this distinct subfamily of kinesins is important in regulating cellular microtubule dynamics and plays a crucial role in spindle assembly and chromosome segregation. The molecular mechanism of Kin I-induced microtubule destabilization is as yet unclear. It is generally believed that Kin Is induce a structural change on the microtubule that leads to microtubule destabilization. Recently, much progress has been made towards understanding how Kin Is may cause this structural change, and how ATPase activity is employed in the catalytic cycle.     

Kin I Kinesins: Insights into the Mechanism of Depolymerization

ABSTRACT

Kin I kinesins are members of the diverse kinesin superfamily of molecular motors. Whereas most kinesins use ATP to move along microtubules, Kin I kinesins depolymerize microtubules rather than walk along them. Functionally, this distinct subfamily of kinesins is important in regulating cellular microtubule dynamics and plays a crucial role in spindle assembly and chromosome segregation. The molecular mechanism of Kin I-induced microtubule destabilization is as yet unclear. It is generally believed that Kin Is induce a structural change on the microtubule that leads to microtubule destabilization. Recently, much progress has been made towards understanding how Kin Is may cause this structural change, and how ATPase activity is employed in the catalytic cycle.     

The protein kinase Kin4 inhibits exit from mitosis in response to spindle position defects

Accurate nuclear position is essential for each daughter cell to receive one DNA complement. In budding yeast, a surveillance mechanism known as the spindle position checkpoint ensures that exit from mitosis only occurs when the anaphase nucleus is positioned along the mother-bud axis. We identified the protein kinase Kin4 as a component of the spindle position checkpoint. KIN4 prevents exit from mitosis in cells with mispositioned nuclei by inhibiting the mitotic exit network (MEN), a GTPase signaling cascade that promotes exit from mitosis. Kin4 is active in cells with mispositioned nuclei and predominantly localizes to mother cells, where it is ideally situated to inhibit MEN signaling at spindle pole bodies (SPBs) when anaphase spindle elongation occurs within the mother cell.     

Molecular dissection of the microtubule depolymerizing activity of mitotic centromere-associated kinesin

Mitotic centromere-associated kinesin (MCAK) is a microtubule depolymerizer that is consistent with its role in promoting chromosome segregation during mitosis. Here we show that the conserved motor domain of MCAK is necessary but not sufficient for microtubule depolymerization in cells or in vitro. The addition of only 30 amino acids N-terminal to the motor restores depolymerization activity. Furthermore, dimerization studies revealed that the smallest functional MCAK deletion constructs are monomers. These results define a highly conserved domain within MCAK and related (KIN I) kinesins that is critical for depolymerization activity and show that this depolymerization is not dependent on MCAK dimerization.